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EASY STEPS IN ARCHITECTURE 

AND 

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 



THIS WORK CONTAINS EVERYTHING THAT IS 
NECESSARY FOR A COMPLETE, SELF-TEACH 
ING COURSE IN ARCHITECTURE. IT COM 
MENCES WITH A DESCRIPTION OF DRAWING 
INSTRUMENTS, ETC. RULES FOR LAYING OUT 
SIMPLE DRAWINGS AND EXECUTING SAME 
ARE GIVEN, AND THE STUDENT IS TAUGHT 
STEP BY STEP TO DRAW TO SCALE, FIRST 
THE PLANS, NEXT THE ELEVATIONS, AND 
FINALLY THE DETAILS OF A COTTAGE, INCLUD- 
ING FOUNDATIONS, WALLS, DOORS, WINDOWS, 
STAIRS AND ALL OTHER ITEMS REQUIRED FOR 
FINISHING A SMALL BUILDING COMPLETE 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 



BY FRED T. HODGSON 

Special Exclusive Edition 
Printed by 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

EXPRESSLY FOR 

SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY 
Chicago, ill. 

1915 






.\\1 



Copyright 1915 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 



Copyright 1911 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 



#^f^ 



OCT -9 1915 

©CI.A41J886 



PREFACE. 



In preparing and adapting the present work, the 
Editor feels that he has supplied wants the ambitious 
young workmen have long felt. When a workman 
reaches a certain stage of perfection he naturally 
reaches out for more information in connection with 
his occupation, no matter what -it may be. The Car- 
penter, the Bricklayer, the Mason and the Decorator all 
desire to know more of the art of architecture than can 
be acquired on the building or in the workshop; and 
this book is put together in order to give them an op- 
portunity of getting that information and I am in- 
clined to think that what is offered herewith, while not 
by any means a complete or comprehensive work on 
architecture, if thoroughly studied, will convey to the 
student a sufficient knowledge that will enable him to 
grasp the main points in architecture and styles, to 
such an extent, that he will be able at least, to talk 
intelligently on the subject. 

"The Easy Lessons in Architecture," embodied 
in the work have been used for many years as a sort 
of catechism of the art, while the part on architectural 
styles is about the most complete ever published in so 
small a space. The latter is adapted from the German 
of Rosengarten. 

I think that all readers of this little book will be 
satisfied with its contents, and that every workman who 
1 



2 PREFACE 

peruses it with a view of enlarging his knowledge on 
architecture, will be satisfied that he knows much more 
when he lays down the book, than he did before he took 
it up. If this is the case, and I am sure it will be, I 
shall feel that my efforts in this direction have not been 
made in vain. 

Fred T. Hodgson. 



INDEX 

Page 
Preface 1 

PART I 

Early History of Architecture — ^Construction — Early Brit- 
ish, New Zealand and Thibetan Architecture — Ancient 
and Mediaeval Architecture — Styles of Architecture — 
Greek and Roman — The Arch — Greek, Doric, Ionic, 
Corinthian and Composite — Roman Tuscan, Doric, 
Ionic, Corinthian and Composite — Two Broad Styles 
of Gothic, including Early English, Geometrical, 
Pointed Curvilinear, Decorated and Perpendicular 
Styles — The Romanesque and Other Styles — General 
Details of Grecian and Roman Styles 9 

CLASSIC STYLES. 

Romanesque, Byzantine, Florentine, Modern Roman, Vene- 
tian and the Renaissance — Columns, Colonnades, and 
the Orders — Temples, Arcades, Spandrils and Trac- 
ing — Entablatures, Architraves, Frieze and Pediments 
— Ornamentation of the Various Orders — Metopes and 
Cornices — Consoles, Brackets, Trusses and Mouldings 
— Examples of Modern Italian Styles for Doors and 
"Windows — Caryatides, Telamones, Atlantes and Per- 
sian 12 

ON THE ORDERS OF GRECIAN AND ROMAN ARCHITEC- 
TURE. 

Number of Orders, Primary and Secondary — Orders De- 
scribed in Detail — Proportion of the Orders, Peculiar 
Features of Each Order — Elevation and Plans of the 
Various Orders Illustrated 21 

ON PLANS, FOUNDATIONS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF 

ARCHES. 

How to Commence a Building — Plans and Other Drawings 
— Preparations of Foundation, Natural and Artificial 
Foundation — Concrete and Portland Cement — Inverted 
Arches — Arches Generally — Flat Arches, Stone Arches, 
Brick Arches and Joggled Arches 27 

3 



4 INDEX 

Page 
GENERAL DETAIL OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 

The Chief Feature of Gothic Architecture — Arches, Pillars, 
Buttresses, Towers, Spires, Pinnacles, Traceried Win- 
dows and High-pitched Roofs — French, German, Eng- 
lish and Norman Styles — Masonry, Brickwork, Butt- 
resses, Groins and Towers — Churches, Cathedrals and 
Gothic Buildings Generally — Plate Tracery, Bar 
Tracery, MuUions and Cross Muntins — Wheel or Rose 
Windows — Trefoil and Square Head Windows, Tran- 
som, Hoods, Hood Mouldings and Dripstones 34 

CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 

King and Queen Post Roofs — Rafters, Purlins, Braces, 
Trusses, Posts and Struts, High Pitched Roofs — 
Vantled Roofs, Pent Roofs, Pendents and Groins — 
Divisions in Churches, Arrangements of Different 
Parts, Aisles, Transept, Nave, Choir, Chancel and 
Clearstory — Triforium, Porch, Canopy and Vestibule — 
Ancient Construction — Greek and Roman — Norman 
and Mediaeval 45 

ON MILITARY AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 

Greek and Roman Construction — Temples, Triumphal 
Arches, Amphitheatre, Baths, Basilicas and Other 
Places of Amusement and Games — Middle Age Castles, 
Forts and Other Defences with Parapets, Turrets, 
Barbicans and Battlements — Halls, Dormers, Oriels 
and Posterns 51 

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITEC- 
TURE. 

The Meaning of the Term Gothic — Classic Revival — Prin- 
ciples of Gothic — Distinguishing Features with Illus- 
trated Examples — Various Styles of Gothic — Mixture 
of Styles, Florid and Flamboyant Styles — Norman — 
Romanesque and Decorated Styles — Sub-division of 
Gothic Architecture 55 

THE DEVELOPMENT AND DISTINGUISHING FEATURES 

OF SUCCEEDING STYLES FROM THE ANCIENT 

GRECIAN TO THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. 

Racial Influence on Architecture, Indian, Egyptian, 
Assyrian and Chinese — Peculiarities of these Influ- 
ences — Origin of Various Details of Building — Dates 
of the Origin of the Styles — Character of Roman 
Workmanship — Items 67 



INDEX 5 

Page 
ON THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. 

The Transition Period— What the Term Covers — Saxon, 
Norman, Tombard and Byzantine — Description of 
Styles — Second Transitional Period 73 

ON THE MODERN STYLES OP ARCHITECTURE. 

The Decline of Gothic Architecture — The Introduction of 
Italian, Florentine and Other Styles — Fine Italian 
Examples — Present Styles of Architecture — Truth in 
Building 78 



PART II. 

THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES OF ANTIQUITY— INDIAN 
ARCHITECTURE, ROCK TEMPLES. 

Brahma, Siva, Vishnu, Buddha or Gautama — Three Thou- 
sand Years Before Christ, General Characteristics of 
Cave Temples of Kylas and Ellora — Buddhist Sym- 
bolism — Rock Cut Decoration — Indian Pillars — Topes 
and Cupolas — Monuments in Java and Boro Budor — 
Pagodas, i. e., Sacred. Houses 81 

JAINA ARCHITECTURE. 

Temples in Madera, Tan j ore and Chillinbarum, Pagoda of 
Juggernaut — Massiveness of Stone Work — Sculptured 
Cornices and Pillars — Mouldings and Capitals 94 

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 

Inundations of the Nile — Effects on Style of Building — 
The Cities of Thebes, Memphis and Alexandria — Devel- 
opment of Egyptian Culture — Woods of the Ramases 
— The Temples of Luxor and of Karnak, Rock 
Temples of Ipsamboul and the Monuments of Nubia, 
Derri and Kalabache and the Temples of Upper Egypt 
— Philae, Elephantina,,Syene, Ombos and Esneh — The 
Pyramids, their Construction and Peculiarities — 
Temple of Edfou, the Sphinxes, Rams and Other Sculp- 
tures — The Pylons of Luxor, Statues and Obelisks, 
Ornamentation and Carvings, Development of the 
Lotus, Ground Plan of the Palace of Karnak, Entrance 
to Rock Temple of Ipsamboul with Colossal Statues 
in Front— Hall of Palace in Karnak 99 



6 INDEX 

Page 
WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 

Babylonian, Chaldean and Assyrian— Growth and Develop- 
ment, Cuniform Writing, Excavations of Assyrian 
Ruins, Babylonia, Nineveh, Khorsabad, and Koyrind- 
schick, Assyrian Mosaics, Pavements and Walls — 
Griffins, Winged Bulls, Lions with Human Heads 
Were Frequently Sculptured, Ornamentation from 
Nimroud, Nineveh and Elsewhere — The Temple of 
Baal or Tower of Babel — The Hanging Gardens of 
Nebuchadnezzar and Semizamis — Pillars and Col- 
umns, Capitals and Bases — Assyrian Ornamentation. 130 

PHOENICIAN AND ISRAELITISH ARCHITECTURE. 

Little Known of the Buildings of These People — No Ruins 
Left Us — Solomon's Temple — Temple of Herod the 
Great — The Pillars of Jachin — Firm, and Boaz — 
Strong, Were Prominent Features in Jewish Temple 
Building They Possessed a Symbolical Meaning — Jew- 
ish Tombs and Sepulchers 142 

MEDIAN AND PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. 

Influence of Egyptian, Assyrian and Greek Art and Median 
and Persian Architecture — The Ruins of Persepolis 
Works of Xerxes and Darius — The Workmanship and 
Materials of the Medes and Persians 146 

CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. 

China and the Worship of Buddha Peculiarities of Chinese 
Architecture — Porcelain Pagodas and Pavilions, Fan- 
tastic Buildings 152 

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE, ROMAN CHRIS- 
TIAN BASILICAS. AND CIRCULAR 
ARCHITECTURE. 
Early Christian Art — Romanesque Art — Art in Constan- 
tinoi)le — Byzantine Art — Division of Early Christian 
Churches — Interior Arrangement — Plans and Eleva- 
tions of Early Basilicas, Towers — Spires — Baptisteries 
— Symbols and Emblems God the Father 156 

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 
A New Departure — Eastern Influences — Arabian Practice 
— Peculiarities of Byzantine Style — Ste. Sophia Con- 
stantinaple — Description of the Building — The Dome 
System — Interior Decorations Barrel Vaults — Woman's 
Galleries — Other Greek Churches in Byzantine Style 
— Columns and Capitals — Details from St. Mark at 
Venice — Armenian Influence on the Byzantine Style.. 174 



INDEX 7 

Page 
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE IN ARMENIA AND 
GEORGIA. 

Church, Architecture of Eleventh Century — Peculiarities 
of Style — Ornamental Work, Domical Roofs 193 

RUS SO-BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 

Russian or Slavonic Architecture, Peculiarities of the Style 
— History of the Development of the Style — Churches 
at Kief, Novogorod and Moscow — Cathedral of Vassili, 
Blankenoy — Color in Russian Architecture — Towers 
with Bulb-shaped Domes 195 

MAHOMETAN ARCHITECTURE. 

Arabian Architecture in General — The Religion of Islam, 
Arabian Style Proper, Mosques, Palaces and Minarets, 
Interior Arrangements, Details of Style, Arabian 
Arches, Wall Decoration, Outlines of Structures 202 

ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN. 

The Style in Cordova A. D. 912 Under Abd el Rahman III. 
— B.uilding of the Giralda, the Alcazar and the Alham- 
bra — Plaster Decorations — Costly Embellishments... 213 

ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE IN EGYPT AND SICILY. 

The Mosques of Cairo — Arches in Egyptian Mosques — 
Splendor of Some of the Buildings — Domestic Archi- 
tecture — Palaces and Churches in Sicily 224 

PERSO-ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. 

Influence of Old Style on the New — The Arch in Persian 
Architecture, Mosques, Palaces and Tombs — Painting 
and Color in this Style 228 

ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA. 

Turco-Tartar Forms — Magnificence of Delhi and Agra, The 

Taj Mehal 233 

TURKISH ARCHITECTURE. 

The Cathedral of Ste. Sophia Formed the Great Model for 
this Style — Domes, Minarets, and Bulbs the Chief 
Features of Turkish Style of Building — Wall Decora- 
tion and Color 237 

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE. 

The Revival of Classic Architecture — Beginnings in Italy 
and Elsewhere — The Certosa at Pavia — Early Floren- 
tine, Venetian and Lombard Renaissance — The Pitti 
'Palace and the Palace of Riccardi as Examples — 



8 INDEX 

Page 

Churches of San Lorenzo and San Spirito — Venetian 
Examples in Venice — Library of St. Mark at Venice by 
Sansovino — Palladian Examples at Vicenza — Palladio's 
Influence on the Renaissance in Style — Vignola's 
Influence on the New Style — Michel Angelo Does Much 
for the Renaissance — Bramante and His Profits — 
Works of Michel Angelo — St. Peter's in Rome — The 
Dome of St. Peter's — Building in Genoa — The Archi- 
tect Galeazzo Abesso of Genoa — Details of Decoration 
and General Embellishment — Later Renaissance 244 

RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 

The Giocondo, an Italian Architect, Became Chief Ad- 
viser to Louis XII. in Matters of Architecture — The 
New Style Adopted Generally in France — The Build- 
ing of the Tuileries and the Louvre — Rich Interior 
Decorations — Mansard and His Style — The Rococo 
Style and Departure from the True Renaissance — The 
Renaissance in England, Known as the "Elizabethan 
Style," Took Root About 1550; Its Best Exponent Was 
Inigo Jones — Wollatin Hall, Palace of Whitehall and 
Others, St. Paul's Cathedral, London, by Sir Chris- 
topher Wren Is a Striking Example of this Style in 
England — German Renaissance — Renaissance in Spain 
and Other Countries 297 

THE ROCOCO STYLE OF THE RENAISSANCE. 

Change of Style — Fllmsiness of Later Innovations — Change 
for Better in the Style — Examples of the Style — Deco- 
ration in this Style 324 

TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. 

Wooden Buildings of Norway and Switzerland — Carvings 
in Various Styles — Framed Buildings in the Harz 
Mountains — Details of Woodwork 339 

TABLES OF STYLES BY COMPARISON. 

Different Styles Mentioned and Their Esthetic Value — 
Expression of Styles — Closing Remarks 349 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE. 

BEING "STEPPING STONES" TO THE AC- 
QUIREMENT OF A KNOWI.EDGE OF THE 
NOBLE ART OF ARCHITECTURE. 

Part I. 

The following series of Questions and Answers were 
first prepared by Mr. Thomas Mitchell, and published 
in London some years ago, and is still a standard 
text-book in many schools and science colleges. Some 
time .ago I slightly revised it, and Americanized it as 
it were; and have since enlarged it and made it more 
useful by additions of some new matter and pertinent 
illustrations; making the work of much more value to 
American readers than it formerly was. I feel as- 
sured that the work as now presented will be favorably 
received by every carpenter and builder who desires 
to know something of the history and theory of that 
most useful of the Arts — Architecture. If this work 
should be the means of creating an interest in the Art, 
in my readers, I shall be well repaid for my efforts. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

EAEIiY HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE 

Q. What is Architecture? 

A. Architecture is the art of constructing a build-' 
ing upon correct and scientific principles, embodying 
strength, utility, and beauty. 

Q. What was the origin of this art? 

A. The origin of this art must have been the neces- 
9 



10 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

sity found by our race in all parts of the world for 
protection from weather and from the attacks of ene- 
mies. 

Q. What was probably the first kind of habitation 
devised or adapted by man? 

A. No doubt the first habitations devised by man 
were bowers in the forests, and from his observance of 
the habits of inferior animals, caves hollowed out of 
the earth. 

Q. Of what materials is it most probable that the 
earliest buildings were constructed? 

A. It is most probable that the earliest materials 
used were rushes, reeds, and the branches of trees tied 
together, plastered with mud and thatched with leaves. 
The ancient Britons constructed most of their dwellings 
of wicker-work. 

Q. What reason have we to suppose that such rude 
materials were ever used by man in constructing his 
dwellings ? 

A. Because such materials were generally ready at 
hand, and because they are even now used among un- 
civilized tribes of New Zealand and the Sandwich Isles. 

Q. Of what shape is it most likely that the earliest 
habitations were made, and why? 

A. It is most probable that they were made of a 
conical shape, because such structures would be most 
easy of construction and removal, would afford most 
protection from rain, and would be less likely to be 
upset by the wind. 

Q. Are there any countries in which the conical 
shape is still in use? 

A. Yes; it is seen in the tents of the nomadic tribes 
of Arabia and Thibet, the huts of the Kamtschatkans, 
and wigwams of many tribes of North American In- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



11 



dians, some of which are constructed of bundles of long 
rushes, the thin ends of which are tied together at the 
top, and the thick ends spread out, and fastened to each 
other at the bottom. 



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Fig. 1. 



Q. "WTiat was probably the next form that suggested 
itself? 

A. As owing to the increase of families larger space 
was required, this was no doubt obtained by means of 



12 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

large limbs of trees fixed in the ground at the corners 
of the proposed dwelling, and the intervening spaces 
filled up with smaller branches, etc. 

Q. To what result did the experience thus gained 
lead? 

A. In the first place to the practicability of still 
further increasing the accommodation by the addition 
of another room above the room on the ground, while 
the advantages derived from the conical habitation no 
doubt suggested the idea of a sloping roof, though in 
eastern countries, and in others where there is little 
rain, this form of roof has never been generally 
adopted. 

ON ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 

Q. How many styles of architecture are there? 

A. There are many styles of architecture, and it 
would be impossible in this work to describe or enumer- 
ate them all, as every country on the face of the globe 
with any approach to civilization has its various styles 
adapted to the exigencies of its climate, the tastes and 
pursuits of its inhabitants, and the materials for build- 
ing which they have at their command. 

Q. What distinction can you make between Greek 
and Roman architecture? 

A. The architecture of the Greeks was that of the 
column and entablature. The genuine architecture of 
the Romans was that of the arch, though when they 
conquered the Greeks they grafted Greek forma on their 
own style, and so made the latter exhibit a combina- 
tion of both. (See Frontispiece.) 

Q. What is the principle of the styles known as 
Gothic? 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



13 



A. The Gothic styles may be classified in two broad 
[ivisions, the first of which, comprising the style gen- 
rally known as the Early English or Lancets and the 
Teometrical, or First and Second Pointed Styles, ex- 
ibits throughout the principle of subordination or 
nity of separately existing parts, while the second di- 
ision comprising the Curvilinear Decorated, or Con- 
inuous, and the Eectilinear, or Perpendicular Styles, 
3nded more and more to blend or fuse the separate 




Fig. 2. 



arts. The Eomanesque styles which preceded the 
rothic may be described as more or less a return to the 
enuine arched constructions of ancient Rome. 
Q. Wherein does the great difference consist in the 
rinciple of construction of an ancient and mediseval 
difice? 



14 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

A. In the effect produced by the chief lines in the 
design. These, in Greek architecture, are the hori- 
zontal ; in the mediaeval styles they are the vertical. 

Q. May not some religious symbolism be the cause 
of this difference in principle? 

A. To some extent perhaps; but it is obvious that 
when the pointed superseded the round arch, all the 
buildings would exhibit more and more the vertical 
character, which results from the combination of the 
several parts of a design into the whole. 



GENERAL DETAIL OF GRECIAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 

Q. Give a general idea of what the so-called classic 
styles include. 

A, The classic styles are the various styles founded 
and practiced by the ancient Greeks and Romans, Other 
styles were developed from these, the principal of which 
are the Romanesque or Byzantine, the Italian, includ- 
ing the Florentine, modern, Roman and Venetian, and 
the Renaissance. 

Q, Name some of the distinguishing features of 
Greek and Roman architecture. 

A. The column, entablature and pediment, together 
with pilasters, colonnades, arcades and porticoes. 

Q. What is a column? (See Plate 2.) 

A. A column is a perpendicular erection of timber, 
stone or iron, and is used to support the weight of su- 
perincumbent parts of the building. In classic archi- 
tecture the column, with its appurtenance, forms the 
principal distinguishing feature of the different orders. 

Q. Describe the different parts of a column. 

A. The principal parts are the base, the shaft and 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 



15 



THE FROI^liLv^LA ATATHENH 




PLATE 2 



Q) 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITEOTURS 



the capital, the base and the capital being subdivided 
into different parts, each of which had its name and 
proportion. Indeed, the column is so important a part 
of classic architecture that the exact proportions of 
each part are settled by rule, according to the order 
used. (Fig. 1.) 

Q. What is an abacus? 

A. A flat slab or tablet forming the upper member 
of a capital. In the Tuscan and Doric orders it is 
square, but in the other orders it is hollowed out at the 
sides and the corners cut off. 

Q. What are pilasters? 

A. Pilasters are flat, square columns attached to a 
wall, behind a column or along the side of a building, 
and projecting from the wall about a fourth or a sixth 
part of their breadth. The Greeks had a slightly differ- 
ent design for the capitals of pilasters and made them 
the 3ame width at top as at bottom, but the Romans 
gave them the same capitals as the columns and made 
them of diminished width at the top, similar to the 
columns. ' / 

Q. What is a colonnade ? Y 

A. A colonnade is a range of columns, and the name 
is usually prefixed to it, signifying the number of col- 
umns it contains, and founded on the Greek word for 
that number. 

Q. Give examples of these different names. 

A. A colonnade with four columns is called tetra- 
style; with six columns, hexastyle; with eight columns, 
octastyle; with ten columns, decastyle, and so on. If 
the space between the columns is equal to one and a 
half diameter of the column it is called pyenostyle; if 
to two diameters, systyle; if to two and a quarter 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



17 



diameters, ustyle; if to three diameters, diastyle, and 
if to four diameters, araostyle. 

Q. What is a colonnade called when in front of a 
building ? 

A. It is then called a portico (Fig. 2), and when 
entirely surrounding the building, peristyle; and when 
the columns are double or treble of depth, polystyle. 
(Fig. 3.) 




Fig. 3. 



Q, What is an arcade? 

A. An arcade is a series of arches and pillars, either 
open or attached to a wall, and is, perhaps, one of the 
most beautiful and pleasing combinations which archi- 
tecture affords. 

Q. What are the spaces between the arches in an 
arcade called? 

A. Spandrils, which in mediaeval architecture are 
often carved with a diapered pattern or decorated with 
tracery or paneling. 

Q, What is the chief use of an arcade? 



18 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



A. An arcade, when outside of a building, is gener- 
ally used to support a balcony or promenade outside 
the first floor windows. Arcades also afford shelter from 
rain and heat; the only real objection to their use is 
that they obstruct the light from the ground floor. They 
are more frequently used on the continent of Europe 
than in this country. 

Q. Describe the entablature. 

A, The entablature comprises the whole of the parts 
between the tops of the columns and the pediment, and 
consists of the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. 
(See Fig. 1.) 





Fig. 4. 



Fig. 5, 



Q. What is the architrave? 

A. The architrave (or principal beam, as the name 
implies) is the lowest division of the entablature, rest- 
ing immediately on the tops of the columns. (See 
Fig. 4.) 

Q. What is the frieze? 

A. The frieze (or ornamental part) is the division 
between the architrave and the cornice, and in the an- 
cient Grecian examples was beautifully sculptured. In 
the Tuscan order it is quite plain, as that order is desti- 
tute of ornament. In the modern Italian style it is 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



19 



sometimes plain, but swelled out, or, as is technically 
termed, cushioned. (See Fig. 1.) 

Q. How is the frieze ornamented in the Doric order ? 

A. By triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs con- 
sist of three vertical angular channels or flutes separated 
by flat spaces, and were generally placed by the Ro- 
mans over the tops of the columns. Metopes (Fig. 5) 
are the spaces between the triglyphs, and originally 
were left open, and when filled in were quite plain. 
In Roman buildings they were usually carved with a 
representation of an ox skull, but sometimes shields 
and other devices were used. The Romans considered it 
essential that the metope should be an exact square. 




Fig. 



Q. What is the cornice? 

A. The cornice (Fig. 6) is the horizontal molding 
on the top of the frieze, and the division between the 
cornice and the frieze is generally marked by a row of 
small square locks, called dentals, placed at regular 
intervals of about two-thirds or three-fourths of their 
breadth. The cornice is varied for each of the orders. 

Q. What is the pediment? 

A. The pediment is the triangular crowning part 
of a portico, and corresponds with a gable in Gothic 



20 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



architecture, excepting that the angle is much more ob- 
tuse than that of a gable. The angle of the pediment 
corresponds with the slope of the roof. (Fig. 3.) 




Fig. 



Q. To what other uses are pediments applied? 
A. In the modern Italian styles the tops of door- 
ways and windows are often arranged as pediments, 




which are supported on consoles, trusses or brackets, 
and in later examples such pediments aT6 often sag- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 21 

mental or circular at top, instead of angular. (Fig. 

7.) 

Q. What are caryatides? 

A. Caryatides (Fig. 8) are colossal emblematical 
figures, made to do duty as columns, to support por- 
ticoes, etc. There is no doubt that, as a means of sup- 
port, columns would answer the purpose much better, 
but they were often used by the Greeks when an extra 
amount of decoration was required. IMale figures are 
called Telamones and Atlantes, or Persians. 



ON THE ORDERS OF GRECIAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 

Q. What do you mean by an order? 

A. An order, in Grecian and Roman architecture, 
consists of the column, base, pedestal, capital, frieze, 
cornice, and moldings belonging to it. 

Q. How many orders are there ? 

A. Five. There are three primary Greek orders, 
viz. : The Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. Two 
more were added by the Eomans, viz. : The Tuscan, a 
modification of the Doric, and the Composite, a modifi- 
cation of the Corinthian. 

Q. Describe the principal features of the Doric 
order. 

A. The Doric order was the oldest and simplest of 
the three Greek orders. The shafts of the columns are 
fluted, and the flutings, which are twenty in number, 
are not quite a semicircle in depth, are separated only 
by a sharp edge and not by a fillet. As used by the 
Greeks, this order was without base or pedestal. 

Q. What is the proportionate height of a Doric 
column? 



22 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



A. The height of a Doric column is usually from 
seven to eight times its diameter at the bottom. 

Q. How is the Doric column surmounted? 

A. The Doric column is surmounted by a capital, 
consisting of a perfectly plain square abacus, with a 
single line of molding underneath it, technically termed 
a quirked ovolo. 




Fig. 9. DORIC ORDER. 
A- Plan of the Sofite Corona. B-Plan of the Capital. C— Plan of Base. 



Q. Describe the Tuscan order, 

A. The Tuscan order, which was founded by the 
Romans, is a variety of the Doric, and is principally 
distinguished by its massiveness and strength. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



23 



Q. What is the proportionate height of the column, 
and how is it surmounted? 

A. The columns are seldom higher than from five- 
and-a-half to seven times their diameter at the bottom; 
they have a simple square abacus and ovolo for a capital, 
and rest on a massive cubical base, with a torus mold- 
ing. The shafts are never fluted. (Fig. 10.) 




Fig. 10. TUSCAN ORDER. 
A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. 

Q. In what position is this order placed in modern 
erections of more than one story and where several or- 
ders are used? 

A. In such a ease this order would be used for the 
basement or lower stories, which would give an air of 
strength and solidity to the whole. 



24 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Q. Describe the Ionic order. 

A. This order is the second of the orders adopted 
by the Greeks and is of lighter character than either 
the Doric or the Tuscan. The shafts are generally, 
though not always, fluted, with a fillet between the flut- 
ings. 




Fig. 11. IONIC ORDER. 
A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. 



Q. What is the proportionate height of the Ionic 
column ? 

A. The total height of the column ought not to ex- 
ceed nine times its diameter at the base, including the 
pedestal, if there is one. As used by the Grecians, this 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



25 



order was without a pedestal, but tlie Romans added 
one. 

Q. How is the Ionic column surmounted? 

A. It is surmounted by a capital, having spiral- 
shaped scrolls at each side, termed volutes. It has also a 
molded base at the bottom, in height about half the 
diameter of the shaft. (Fig. 11.) 




Fig. 12. CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. 



Q. Describe the Corinthian order, 

A. This order is the lightest and most elegant of the 
three orders used by the ancient Greeks. The shaft of 
the column is fluted and the cornices and mouldings 
are richer than those of the Ionic or Doric orders. 



9.6 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Q. Wihat is the proportionate height of the Corin- 
thian coluimi? 

A. The Corinthian column is generally about nine- 
and-a-half or ten times its diameter in height, including 
the molded base. It generally, though not invariably, 
rests on a pedestal. 





E 
L 

I 

E 




i!ini|«llJlilil 






Fig. 13. COMPOSITE ORDER, 
A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital, 



Q. How is the Corinthian column surmounted? 

A. It is surmounted by a very beautiful capital, 
which is the distinguishing feature of the order. It is 
richly carved and surrounded by three rows of acanthus 
leaves. The abacus at the top is hollowed out at the 
sides, and has the corners cut off. (Fig. 12.) 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 27 

Q. Describe the Composite order. 

A. The Composite order, used by the Romans is, as 
its name implies, composed of a combination of other 
orders. It is extremely light and elegant, partaking of 
the character of both the Ionic and Corinthian orders, 
and usually possessing rather more ornament. 

Q. What is the proportionate height of the column, 
and how is it surmounted? 

A. It is of the same proportion and height as the 
Corinthian and has a capital consisting of a combina- 
tion of the Ionic and Corinthian; it has two rows of 
acanthus leaves^ with a modification of the Ionic scrolls. 
The abacus is hollowed out at the sides, like the Co- 
rinthian. (Fig. 13.) 



ON PLANS, FOUNDATIONS, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF 
ARCHES. 

Q. What are the first steps generally taken by an 
architect in the erection of a building? 

A. The preparation of plans and .drawings showing 
the design of the building intended to be erected. 

Q, How many sets of plans are necessary to convey 
an accurate idea of the appearance and arrangement 
of the intended building? 

A. Four, viz., the ground plans, the elevations, and 
the perspective, and sectional plans. 
, Q, Of what do the ground plans consist? 

A. The ground plan is a representation of a hor- 
izontal section of the intended building, showing the 
shape of the ground plot whereon it is to be erected, 
the outlines of the walls and the distribution and ex- 
tent of the various parts. When necessary this plan is 



28 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 

repeated for each floor. In a ground plan the solid 
parts, such as walls and piers, etc., are shaded or col- 
ored dark to distinguish them from the open parts. 

Q. What is meant by an elevation? 

A. The elevations are correct drawings of the front 
and sides of the proposed building, showing its height 
and proportions. 

Q. Wliat is the perspective drawing? 

A. A representation of the intended building as 
viewed from a given point, showing the general effect of 
its appearance. 

Q. What are the sectional drawings? 

A. Drawings representing a perpendicular section 
of the building cut in two from the top to the bottom, 
showing the internal arrangement of floors, staircases, 
chimneys, etc. 

Q. What are the next steps to be taken in the erec- 
tion of a building? 

A. The preparation of the foundation, which must 
be of sufficient firmness to insure that there shall be no 
settlement or sinking of the building at any part. 

Q. When the ground is not naturally firm enough to 
insure the stability of the building, how is this reme- 
died? 

A. Artificial foundations are prepared of concrete. 
A trench is dug about twice the width of the thickness 
of the wall at the foundation, and of a depth in pro- 
portion to the height of the building or a.s the ground 
is more or less to be trusted, and is filled with a mix- 
ture of broken or small loose stones, sand, and Portland 
cement. This mixture, which is dropped into the trench 
from some height, speedily sets, and becomes almost as 
hard as solid rock. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



29 



Q. Are the walls then raised on this foundation? 

A. Yes, and they should be twice as thick for the 
basement as for the rest of the building. In fact the 
remainder of the wall is sometimes slightly reduced in 
thickness for each succeeding story. 

Q. "When openings are required in the basement 
walls, how are they constructed so as not to diminish 
their strength? 




Fig. 14. SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. 

A A— Abutments. S S— Springers. 
V V— Voussoirs. 1 1 — Imposts. IN— 
Intrados. K— Keystone. PP— Piers. 
EX— Extrados. 



Fig. 15. INVERTED ARCHES 



A. In such eases inverted arches are used, and the 
opening above is covered by means of an ordinary arch 
or iron girder. 

Q. Explain the principle of the inverted arch. (Fig. 
15.) 

A. Inverted arches are used to prevent the weight 
of the superstructure pressing the piers into the earth 
at any point, which might occur owing to their not be- 
ing sufficiently broad in surface at the bottom. The 
inverted arches distribute the weight along the whole 
length of the foundation waU. 



30 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Q. What is an arch? 

A. An arch is a curved structure, open below and 
closed above, and when properly constructed is sup- 
ported by the pressure of its component parts, 

Q. In what style of ancient architecture was the 
arch systematically employed? 

A. In that of the ancient Romans, by whom it was 
used both for engineering and ornamental purposes, 
but it enters most largely as a constructive principle 
into the medieval styles. 




Fig. 16. BRIDGE OF ST. ANGELO OVER THE TIBER AT ROME. 

Q. Was not the arch used by the ancient Greeks? 

A. No. They seem to have been unaoquainted with 
the principle of the arch, all their doorways, windows 
and spaces between columns being on the principle of 
the architrave. 

Q. How do you account for the absence of the arch 
in Greek architecture and its frequent use in Roman? 

A. The reason is apparent when the natural features 
of the different countries are considered. In Greece 
there are few or no rivers, in fact, they can hardly be 
called more than rivulets or streams, and the means of 
crossing them were simple, but in Italy the width of 
the rivers necessitated the use of arched bridges. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



31 



Q. Name some of the uses of the arch. 

A. The arch is most frequently used where there is 
weight to be supported and open spaces are needed be- 
low, for instance, in bridges, viaducts, and the walls of 
churches, between the nave and aisles. 




Fig. 17. ROUND ARCH. Fig. 18. EQUILATERAL ABCH. 




Q. Give an example of the use of the arch by the 
ancient Eomans. 

A. The ancient Romans employed the arch in their 
viaducts or artificial roads, in their bridges, and in their 
aqueducts, and for ornamental purposes, chiefly in their 
triumphal arches, which were erected to honor the re- 
turn of their victorious generals and to celebrate their 
triumph 

Q. Describe the construction of an arch. 

A. An arch is composed of voussoirs or wedge- 
shaped pieces of stone or brick, and the lines formed by 
the interstices between the voussoirs all point to the 



32 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

center of the arch, or to the center of the segments of 
arcs which form the arch, as will be clearly seen from 
the diagrams. The outer line is called the extrados 
and the inner line the intrados. 

Q. What are the abutments of an arch? 

A. The abutments are the solid pieces at the sides 
of the arch, and it is obvious that these must be suffi- 
ciently strong to bear the thrust of the arch. 

Q, How is the arch measured? 

A. The distance between the piers is called the span 
of the arch; and from the level line of the springing 
to the point or top of the arch, is its height. 




Fig. 20. ROUND ARCH WITH CROSSETTES. 



Q. Are there not other modes of shaping the vous- 
soirs? 

A. Yes; but they are only variations of the prin- 
ciple already explained, and are perhaps resorted to 
more for ornament than for additional strength; the 
principal is the same in each case, as will be seen by the 
diagrams. In Fig. 20, six of the voussoirs have cros- 
settes or elbows, overlapping the adjoining stone, which 
gave them a horizontal as well as a central bearing; in 
Fig. 21, the voussoirs are cut to fit into each other, or 
in technical phrase joggled. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



33 

or middle 



Q. What is the name of the uppermost 
voussoir ? 

A. The keystone; it is generally larger than the 
other- voussoirs and it is so named because it forms, as 
it were, a key to bind the whole arch firmly together, 

Q. Is the arch capable of supporting much weight? 

A. Yes, if the arch is properly constructed it is 
capable of supporting an equal, if not greater weight, 
than a solid wall. 




Fig. 21. FLAT ARCH, JOGGLED. 



Q. Is this the case with brick work without any 
masonry ? 

A. Decidedly. If the brick are gauged to the proper 
shape, and the arch rightly constructed, with a double 
or treble course of bricks to form the arch, it will, after 
the wall has been carried up a little way, be capable 
of supporting as much weight as if there were no open- 
ing. 



34 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

GENERAL DETAIL OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 

Section I. — Ecclesiastical. 

Q. Name some of the chief features peculiar to me- 
dijeval or Gothic architecture. 

A. Arches, pillars, buttresses, towers, spires, and 
pinnacles, traceried windows, and high pitched roofs. 




Fig. 22. TARRAGONA CATHEDRAL. 

Q. How many different kinds of arches are there, 
and name them? 
A. Nine, viz. : 

1. Semi-circular, used in the Roman, Saxon and Nor- 

man styles, but rarely met with in the Gothic. 

2. The lancet or sharp-pointed, belonging to the Early 

English period. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 35 

3. Equilateral, f belonging to the Geometrical and Cur- 

4. Ogee [ vilinear Decorated periods. 

5. Four centered, belonging to the Perpendicular 

period. 

6. Drop r 

7 Straio-ht and \ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ various transitional 
8^ Shourdered [ P^^^^^^' 

9. Rampant, used in either style for staircases. 

There are some variations '. of these occasionally met 
with, for instance, the horseshoe in the Moorish and 
the stilted arch in the Norman, the three and five-cen- 
tered in the Perpendicular period, and the flat arch; 
but those enumerated above are the principal. (Fig. 23.) 

Q. What is the difference between a Gothic pillar 
and a classic column? 

A. The Gothic pillar is generally clustered, giving an 
appearance of several small pillars united together, and 
often consists of a large central shaft with four smaller 
shafts surrounding it. A common form of pillar con- 
sists of a square with rectangular recesses at each of 
the corners a circular shaft in each of the recesses, and 
a semi-circular one on two or on each of the faces. In 
the decorated period a lozenge-shaped pillar is often 
met with, beautifully carved. 

Q. What kind of capitals and bases are used for a 
Gothic pillar? 

A. The bases are generally molded, the capitals also 
sometimes consist of a series of moldings, but as the 
style was developed, and as more decoration was used, 
they are richly carved with foliage and flowers copied 



ae 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



from nature, oak leaves, ivy leaves, and the leaves of 
the whitethorn, hazel, and marsh-mallow, being often 
met with. 



r\ 





A^ 






Fig. 23. DIFFERENT SHAPE ARCHES. 



Q. What Ls a buttress? 

A. A buttress is a mass of masonry or brickwork, 
built on the outside of a wall to give it additional 
strength to resist the strain of the roof, etc. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 37 

Q. Are the buttresses alike in all the English styles ? 
A. They are on the same principle, but vary accord- 
ing to the period. The Early English buttresses stand 




Fig. 24. FLYING BUTTRESS, BATH ABBEY, 

A— Buttress with Pinnacle. B -Plying Buttress supporting Clerestory. 

C— Vaulted Roof of Aisle. D— Pier dividing Nave from Aisle. E— Vaulted 

Roof of Nave. 

out very boldly and are generally broken into two or 
three stages, and reduced in thickness at each stage. In 



38 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

the decorated examples they are also divided into stages 
and ornamented with niches and canopies to contain 
figures. In the Perpendicular period they are but slight- 
ly different, excepting that they are more often orna- 
mented with the paneling peculiar to that style. They 
are often surmounted by pinnacles. • 

Q. What are flying buttresses? 

A. Flying buttresses are arched buttresses, used when 
extra strength is required for the upper part of the wall 
of the nave, etc., to resist the outward thrust of a vaulted 
ceiling; the lower part of the flying buttress generally 
rests upon the buttress of the outside wall of the aisles. 
Such buttresses are most common in the great conti- 
nental churches; but some beautiful specimens can be 
seen at Westminster Abbey, Afells Cathedral, Bath 
Abbey Church, and St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol. (Fig. 
24.) 

Q. What is a tower? 

A. A tower is a lofty, square structure, of several 
styles, and strengthened by buttresses. The object of a 
tower is to g^lve dignity to a building and also to con- 
tain a peal of bells, which are placed in an upper cham- 
ber of the tower called a belfry. (Fig. 25.) 

Q. Mention some of the best examples of towers in 
England. 

A. The towers of Gloucester Cathedral, York Min- 
ster, Beverley Minster, Canterbury and Lincoln Cathe- 
drals, and Magdalen College, Oxford, are, perhaps, the 
finest amongst the many noble towers in Great Britain. 

Q. What counties in England are celebrated for the 
fine towers to their parish churches? 

A. Somersetshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk, which 
possess a very large number of magnificent towers, any 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



39 



one of which might well be the pride of a whole county. 

Q. "What is a spire ? 

A. A spire is a lofty structure built on the top of a 
low tower, and tapering gradually to point at the top. 
(Fig. 25.) 



mi. 




Heckington. 
SPIRE. 



Pig. 25. 



All Saints' Derby. 
TOWER. 



Q. Of what shape is the tapering part? 

A. The tapering part is generally octagonal, and 
the angles are often crocketed, i. e., ornamented with 
carved figures like leaves curling over. There are often 



40 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



little windows or niches, and canopies made at intervals. 
The name of steeple is often applied to either a tower 
or a spire, or to the combination of both. 




Fig. 26. 
GEOMETRICAL FIGURES USED IN TRACERY AND PANELING. 



Q. Mention some of the finest spires in England. 
A. The spires of Salisbury and Norwich Cathedrals, 
and St. Michael's Church, Coventry. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



41 



Q. What are pinnacles? 

A. Pinnacles are small spires used to ornament the 
tops of buttresses, gables, etc. 

Q. What are turrets ? 

A. Turrets are little towers which are used to orna- 
ment different parts of Gothic buildings ; frequently the 
high towers of churches and cathedrals are finished off 
by turrets or pinnacles at the comers. 




Fig. 27. 



Q. Are not towers and spires used in classic build- 
ing? 

A. They were not used in any ancient examples, but 
modem buildings often have steeples and the idea is 
evidently taken from the Gothic, though not with very 
great success. The best specimens are those by Sir 
Christopher Wren, St. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, Christ 
Church, Newgate Street, and St. Michael-le-Queme, Fos- 
ter Lane, are, perhaps, the three best examples that can 
be mentioned, though there are many copied from them. 

Q. What is tracery? 



42 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



A. Tracery is the ornamental stonework in the head 
of windows forming geometrical and flowing patterns, 
or caused by the intersection and combination of mull- 
ions. (Figs. 26, 27, 28 and 29.) 

Q. What are mullions? 

A. Mullions are the upright divisions of the stone- 
work, dividing the windows into compartments or lights. 
(Figs. 26 and 27.) 

Q. What was the origin of mullions and tracery? 

A. No doubt the first idea of mullions and tracery 
was obtained by the combination of two or more narrow 
srindows of the Early English period. 





S. Guen. Rouen. 



Fig. 28. 



Q. How many kinds of tracery are there? 

A. Two; plate tracery and bar tracery. 

Q. What is plate tracery? 

A. Plate tracery is the very earliest form of tracery 
and belongs to the later periods of the First Pointed or 
Early English style. It consists simply of apertures 
cut in the flat surface of the stonework between the 
tops of the narrow windows. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



43 



Q. Is this, properly speaking, tracery? 

A. No; the complete idea of Gothic tracery requires 
not only the lights and figure (or figures) above them 
shall be combined by label and arch, with muUions in- 
stead of portions of wall, but that the spandrils in the 
window-head shall be pierced. 




Tattershall Castle. S. George's Chapel. 

PERPENDICULAR WINDOWS AND DOORWAYS. 





Fig. 29. 



Q. What is bar tracery? 

A. Bar tracery is the most elaborate form of this 
kind of ornament and belongs chiefly to the Geometrical 
and Curvilinear Decorated periods. Its name is derived 
from the supposed resemblance to bars of iron twisted 
and bent to form geometrical and floriated patterns. 



44 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Many most beautiful examples are to be found in York 
Minster. 

Q. Is the use of tracery confined to windows? 

A. No ;' it is also used in paneling and in open screen 
work of wood or stone. 

Q. What are transoms? 

A. Transoms are the horizontal divisions across the 
mullions and are used in the windows of the continuous 
or Perpendicular period and are occasionally of great 
size; indeed, the tracery of windows of this period very 
often partakes more of the character of open paneling, 
filled in with glass than is consistent with a true Gothic 
effect, and this is one of the later features of the period 
marking the decline of the style. 



GENERAL DETAIL OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 

Section I. — Ecclesiastical. 

Q. What other feature exists in the windows, panel- 
ing and screens of Gothic architecture? 

A. The little arches formed by the mullions are 
often cusped, that is, there are projections from the 
curve of the arch, as though another arch were going to 
spring out. These cusps in the Perpendicular style are 
often decorated by a flower at the point. Two cusps in 
the arch form a trefoil, tnree a quatrefoil, and so on. 

Q. What other shapes do windows assume in Gothic 
architecture ? 

A. The wheel or rose, and the squarehead. 

Q. Describe these. 

A. The wheel or rose window is circular and is filled 
with tracery like shafts, radiating from the center, re- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 45 

sembling the spokes of a wheel, as in Westminster Abbey, 
or in waving lines, as in the Flamboyant buildings of 
France (Fig. 28). The square-topped window used 
only in the Perpendicular style is divided by muUions 
and transoms. (Fig. 29.) 

Q. What is meant by the hood molding ? 

A. The hood molding, also called the dripstone, is a 
projecting molding over the tops of traceried windows 
and doorways. It seldom extends lower than the spring 
of the arch, and is used for the double purpose of orna- 
ment and to protect the tracery from the rain. Per- 
pendicular windows and doorways are almost invariably 
hooded. 




Fig. 30. Fig. 31. 

Q, Describe the construction of a roof. 

A. The principal parts are the rafters, trusses, posts, 
purlins and braces. Their forms and uses are shown 
in the diagrams. It will be observed that the object of 
the tie-beam is to prevent the sloping rafters from 
spreading out. The king-post stands on the tie-beam 
and reaches up to the ridge-piece, which it supports, and 
the braces or struts reach from the foot of the king-post 
to the middle of the sloping rafters, preventing them 
from bending in or bulging out, and the purlins are 
horizontal rafters, running along the sloping rafters at 
the top of the braces. Sometimes there are two posts on 
the tie-beam, in which case it is called a queen-post roof. 
(See Figs. 30 and 31.) 



46 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Q. What is meant by a high-pitched roof? 

A. Gothic roofs of the Early English and Decorated 
periods are often of a high pitch, i. e., the sides and 
base of the roof form an equilateral triangle, the insides 
being open so that the woodwork is visible. In the Per- 
pendicular period the roofs were more depressed, that is, 
the angle at the top was more obtuse, which marks an- 
other sign in the decline of the true Gothic principle. 
(Fig. 32.) 

Q. What material was used for covering the roof? 

A. Shingles or thin slabs of oak, which, however, 
gave way to tiles, and ultimately to lead, as being more 
durable. 

Q. What were the means used for conducting the 
water from the roof? 

A. The water was collected by a gutter and dis- 
charged from the roof by spouts called gargoyles, which 
were frequently carved into a representation of a gro- 
tesque figure, which threw the water from its mouth. 

Q. What are corbels? 

A. Corbels are projecting pieces of timber or stone 
set in a wall for an arch to spring from, or to support 
the beam. 

Q. What is a gable? 

A. A gable is the upper part of the end wall of a 
building above the eaves and conforming to the angle 
of the roof. 

Q. What is a vaulted roof ? 

A, A vaulted roof, or more properly a vaulted ceil- 
ing, as there is always an additional outside roof to 
cover it, is built on the principle of the arch and is 
often richly groined and ornamented with bosses and 
pendants. In some mediaeval buildings, probably owing 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 47 

to the walls not being of sufficient strength to bear the 
weight of stone, blocks of wood have been used instead 
and made to look like stone. (Fig. 32.) 

Q. What is a groined ceiling? 

A. Most vaulted ceilings are groined, the groins being 
the angles formed by the intersection of the arches. In 
many cases they are rendered more prominent by being 
ribbed or molded, a boss or ornament being generally 
placed where all the ribs meet at the top. 





Fig. 32. VAULTED CEILING. Fig. 33. PENDANT. 



Q. What other ways are there of ornamenting the 
ceiling ? 

A. In the Perpendicular style there is a kind of 
tracery leading from the pillars and spreading aU over 
the vaulted ceiling. This is called fan tracery. There 
are also in this style some beautiful examples of flat 
ceilings divided into panels, the divisions of which are 
richly molded and ornamented with bosses. 

Q. What is a pendant? 

A. A pendant is a hanging ornament, sometimes of 
large size and often covered with molding or sculpture. 
It is placed at the conjunction of the fan tracery, or of 
the ribs at the top of the vaulted roof. The way in 



48 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 

which it is supported is shown in the diagram. Pend- 
ants are principally used in the Perpendicular style, and 
there are some beautiful specimens in Henry VII 's 
chapels. (Fig. 33.) 

Q. How is a Gothic church divided? 

A. Into nave and aisles, choir and chancel. The 
nave and aisles are for the congregation, the choir for 
the singers and the chancel for the celebration of Holy 
Communion. This arrangement is that which is gener- 
ally adopted in cathedrals and minsters, but it is not 
universal, as many small parish churches have no aisle 
or choir, but simply consist of nave and chancel. 

Q. What is a lady chapel? 

A. A small chapel attached to collegiate and other 
large churches, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and often 
forming a projection from the main building, generally 
to the eastward of the chancel. 

Q. Are these divisions all under the same roof? 

A. No. The nave is divided from the aisles by 
arches and pillars and has a roof to itself; the roofs of 
the aisles are not nearly so high as the nave, and the 
roof of the choir and chancel is generally either higher 
or lower than the nave. (Fig. 34.) 

Q. What are clerestory windows? 

A. The clerestory, or clear-story, is the name of a 
series of windows which are often seen over the arches 
which divide the nave from the aisles, and are so called 
because they form a clear story above the other parts of 
the building and to distinguish it from the triforium, 
which was called the blind story. They are useful to in- 
crease the light in the nave. (Fig. 34.) 

Q. What is the triforium? 

A, The triforium, sometimes called the blind story, 
is a gallery with small open arches in front built over the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



49 



aisles, sometimes in the thickness of the wall, and often 
between the vaulted ceiling of the aisles and the out- 
side roofs. (Fig. 34.) 

Q. What is a porch? 

A. A porch is a roofed structure outside the princi- 
pal doorways, and most usually in height only just 
covers the doorway, though in some examples there is 
a room over them. In the debased or Elizabethan style, 
porches are sometimes carried up as high as the rest 
of the building and with uniform stories. 




Fig. 34. 



Q. "Wliat is a canopy? 

A. A canopy is projecting ornamented covering over 
doors, windows and niches for receiving statues, etc. 
They are used in all the Gothic styles, though chiefly in 
the Perpendicular. 

Q. What is meant by tessellated pavement, and by 
whom was it originally used? 

A. Tessellated pavement is composed of pieces of 
different colored marble or tiles arranged to form geo- 
metrical patterns. The Romans often used baked tiles, 



50 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

also, which were colored and shaped to form patterns. 
Many remains of those have been exhumed recently, 
among which may be mentioned a very fine specimen 
recently found at Canterbury, and now deposited in 
Canterburj^ ]\Iuseum. Tessellated pavements were large- 
ly used by mediaeval architects. 

Q. Did the ancient and mediaeval architects employ 
the aid of color in their buildings? 

A. Yes: color was largely employed by both in the 
way of coloring the walls by means of frescoes, etc., and 
in drapery as well as in painted windows. Much of the 
bareness and coldness noticed in some medieval remains 
is no doubt caused by the absence of drapery and tapes- 
try hangings, intended to be used by the architect, but 
which have not been replaced. 

Q. What great lesson may be learnt from a survey 
of the remains of both ancient and mediseval buildings 
besides their style and form of architecture? 

A. That ancient architects worked throughout on 
principle, employing in their construction only such 
forms as were necessary. "We seldom find in the remains 
of their buildings anything made of plaster while pur- 
porting to be of stone, or any inscriptions painted while 
purporting to be incised. Nearly everything is what 
it seems to be. If Greeks and Romans had erected their 
buildings as many large modern buildings are erected, 
we should have but few models from which to take 
pattern. Evidently their buildings were meant to last, 
and each stone was laid with the intention that their 
children in a remote age might find it as perfect as they 
left it. Their motto was not "this is the cheapest and 
easiest way to do it, and at any rate it will last our 
time." The remains of our mediagval buildings, many 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 51 

of which were brought to their present state by sieges 
and fires, and battering of war engines and yet, the 
masonry, in many instances remains practically unin- 
jured. From this we can form some conception of what 
the whole must have been when just completed by those 
master builders. 

ON MILITARY AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 

[Although many of the features just described are 
used both in ecclesiastical and military or domestic 
architecture, the following are used only in the latter 
and it is therefore deemed best to describe them in a 
separate section.] 

Q. What was the character of the domestic archi- 
tecture of the ancient Greeks ? 

A. Very poor; their entire attention was paid to 
their temples. 

Q. Was this the case with the ancient Romans ? 

A. No. The ancient Romans paid greater attention 
to civil and domestic architecture, as the remains of their 
triumphal arches, amphitheatres, baths and houses 
testify. 

Q. WThat was the Basilica of the ancient Romans? 

A. Basilica was the name given to the public Hall of 
Justice ; it generally contained an altar for the adminis- 
tration of oaths, and a raised platform for the judges. 
Many of these basilicas were afterward converted into 
Christian churches. 

Q. What buildings next to the ecclesiastical struct- 
ures received the greatest amount of attention from the 
mediaeval architects? 

A. The castles of the barons and nobility. 

Q. What is a castle? 

A. An edifice of great strength and solidity, being a 
fortress and palace combined. They were used as dwell- 



52 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

ing places by the nobility, and were strongly fortified 
so as to be able to withstand the attack of an invading 
force. 

Q. What are the general characteristics of a Gothic 
castle ? 

A. Convenience was evidently sacrificed for secur- 
ity, the apartments were often gloomy, bed-chambers 
few and small, passages narrow and intricate, and the 
stairs steep and dark. 

Q. What was the general plan of defence? 

A. They were surrounded in most instances by a 
moat or deep ditch, which was generally kept filled with 
water so as to render it difficult for the attacking party 
to get near enough to make a breach in the walls. 

Q. What were the means of exit and entrance to the 
inhabitants of the castle? 

A, A drawbridge or platform which could be lowered 
or raised when necessary. 

Q. Supposing the drawbridge was inadvertently 
left down, what was the defence of the doorway? 

A. A portcullis, which was a kind of crossbarred 
gate of great strength, sliding in grooves, which was 
kept lowered in front of the principal entrance. 

Q. Describe the principal entrance to a castle. 

A. The principal entrance was often very imposing, 
consisting of a long passage with a vaulted ceiling and 
portcullis at either end, and capable of resisting a pro- 
longed attack. 

Q. What was the next defence to the castle? 

A. The barbican, which was a kind of tower often 
separated from the castle and strongly fortified to 
guard the drawbridge and principal entrance. 

Q. What was the principal tower called? 

A. The keep. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 53 

Q. What is a parapet? 

A, A low wall to afford protection to soldiers fight- 
ing on the ramparts of castles and the roofs of other 
buildings. 

Q. What is an alur? 

A. A hidden passage behind a parapet for the pur- 
pose of watching unseen the operations of besiegers. 

Q. What are battlements? 

A. Notched or indented parapets. The solid parts 
are called merlons, and the openings embrasures, or cre- 
nelles, through which archers could shoot. Battlements 
are sometimes employed for ornaments in ecclesiastical 
structures. 

Q. What is a bartizan? 

A. A small overhanging turret projecting from the 
corners of a tower or from the parapet. They are more 
commonly used on the Continent than in England. 

Q. What was the chief apartment in a mediaeval 
castle ? 

A. The hall, where all meals were had, and which 
was often strewed with rushes for the servants to sleep 
on at night. 

Q. What is a bay or oriel window? 

A. Bay windows were chiefly used in the Perpendic- 
ular style, and formed a bay or recess at the upper end 
of the hall. These recesses were either rectangular or 
polygonal, and when used for an upper story were sup- 
ported on the outside by corbels, or a projecting series 
of mouldings. Bay windows or bow windows of semi- 
circular shape are often used in the modern Italian 
styles. 

Q. What was the next important apartment in the 
castle ? 

A. The kitchen, which on account of the number of 



54 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

retainers and frequent visitors at the castle of a baron, 
formed a most important feature. It was sometimes a 
separate building, but was most usually in direct com- 
munication with the hall. 

Q. What was the postern gate? 

A. A private or concealed gate in a castle or mon- 
astery by which means of exit was obtained or message 
sent for aid during a siege. 

Q. What are cloisters? 

A. A covered arcade on three sides of a quadrangu- 
lar space in front of a church or monastery; they were 
used as places of study by the monks, and the space en- 
closed within them was used for recreation. 

Q. What were the lavatories? 

A. Places for washing in monastic buildings, some- 
times consisting of a fountain or reservoir of water and 
a stone trough in the cloisters. 

Q. What is a lantern tower? 

A. A small turret usually erected on the roof of a 
hall, or at the junction of a transept ; they were open to 
view from the ground nearly the whole of their height. 
The name was also applied to an open erection at the 
tops of towers, as at Boston Church, Lincolnshire, Eng- 
land. 

Q. What are dormer windows? 

A. They are small windows built out of a high- 
pitched roof; they are very picturesque in appearance, 
and are so called because they were originally used for 
dormitories, or sleeping-chambers. 

Q. What is the meaning of the term ** batter"? 

A. Walls leaning inward are said to batter, that is, 
the top part of the building would be of less circum- 
ference than the base. Walls of wharves, embankments 
and fortifications generally batter. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



55 



ON THE DEVELOPMENT OP MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 

Q. What is meant by the term Gothic? 
A. The name of Gothic was given to the various 
MediaBval styles at a period in th'^ sixteenth century 





Fig. 35. Early English Facade. 



Fig. 36. 



when a great classic revival was going on, and every- 
thing not classic was considered barbarian or Gothic. 
The term was thus originally intended as one of stig- 
ma, and although it conveys a false idea of the character 
of the Mediaeval styles, it has been long used to dis- 
tinguish them from the Grecian and Eoman. 

Q. What change was produced by the general adop- 
tion of the pointed arch ? 

A. The true principle of Gothic architecture was 
firmly established. 

Q. What is the true principle of Gothic architec- 
ture? 



56 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



A. The vertical, division, relation, and subordinatiori 
of the different parts, distinct and yet a unity with 
each other, and while this principle was adhered to, 





Equilateral or Decorated Arch and 
Pillars. 



Fig. 38. ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL. 

Tudor or Perpendicular Arch and 

Pillars. 



Gothic architecture may be said to have retained its 
vitality. 

Q. Describe the distinguishing features of the earlier 
stage of Gothic architecture. 



m 



fft 



Fig. 39. 



Fig. 40. 



A'. The chief features of the earliest periods are 
high-pitched roofs, sharp-pointed arches, and narrow 
windows, and a more severe treatment generally than is 
apparent in succeeding styles. Lincoln and Salisbury 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



57 



Cathedrals and Westminster Abbey are among the most 
beautiful examples of this period which has been desig- 
nated as the Early English, First Pointed, or Lancet, on 
account of the sharp-pointed arches. (Figs. 35, 36, 37, 
38.) 




Fig. 42. 



Fig. 43. 



Q. What further progress was made in Gothic archi- 
tecture at this period, and to what did it give rise? 

"a. The grouping together of two or more windows 
and inclosing them with an arch. The spaces between 




Fig. 44. 




Fig. 45 



the tops of the windows were then pierced, which gave 
rise to the adoption of plate tracery, which at first con- 
sisted only of the openings made in the walls between 



58 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

the tops of the windows. The upright pieces of wall 
between the windows became narrower and ultimately 
gave way to muUions, and the two or more windows 
grouped together became one window, consisting of two 
or more lights. 

Q. What were the next changes introduced into 
Gothic architecture? 

A. The principal changes next made were such as 
further developed the principle of subordination, viz., 
the widening of the arches and the general adoption of 
the equilateral form; the use of bar tracery instead 



on afln ^(\m 

Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. 



of plate tracery, the patterns being worked in geo- 
metrical forms; the clustering of shafts and the ex- 
quisite moldings around the arches, doors and windows. 
(Fig. 26.) 

Q. What name has been given to the style now 
adopted ? 

A. This style has been called the Geometrical Dec- 
orated, or Second Pointed, and during this period Goth- 
ic architecture may be considered to be in its prime, for 
whatever may be the beauty of succeeding styles — and 
the question of beauty is quite distinct from that of 
principle — the departure from the true Gothic principle 
becomes more and more apparent. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



59 



Q. Did these changes take place suddenly or rapid- 
ly? 

A. No. The change was very gradual, and many 
examples exist which partake of the character of both 






Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 



Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



the Lancet and Geometrical Decorated styles. Many 
buildings were erected exhibiting some of the new 
features of the former period after they had passed out 
of general use. These are called transitional. 





Fig. 56. 



Q. Is not this mixture of styles a great hindrance to 
the assignment of exact dates to mediaeval buildings? 
A. Yes; but the development of the art rendered 



60 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



necessary a period of transition between each stage, and 
we are indebted to such periods for some of the most 
beautiful designs. 

Q. Give some examples of the Geometrical Decorated 
style. 

A. Parts of Ely, Exeter, Norwich, York and Litch- 
field Cathedrals contain exquisite specimens of the work- 
manship of this period. 

Q. What was the next change in principle? 

A. The next change was one which ultimately re- 
gulted in the downfall of Gothic architecture; and this 





Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 



was the introduction into the tracery of windows of 
curved forms, blending one into the other, instead of 
the pure geometrical forms which preserved a separate 
character, while existing in perfect unity (Fig. 60). 
This style, which commences the second division of 
Gothic architecture, is called the Curvilinear or Flow- 
ing Decorated, and corresponds with the Flamboyant 
style of France. 

Q. Describe the Flamboyant style of architecture. 

A. The Flamboyant style was contemporary in 
France with the Curvilinear and Continuous styles of 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



61 



Great Britain. This name was given to it because of the 
resemblance of its tracery to the waving of flames. , The 
Church of St. Ouen, Rouen, and the Cathedral of Har- 
fleur in Normandy, contain beautiful specimens of this 
style. 

Q. How did this change lead to the downfall of 
Gothic architecture? 

A. Because it involved a departure from the true 
Gothic principle, the unity of separately existing parts, 
and allowed to the flowing of one form into another, 
thereby acting upon a new principle — viz., the absorp- 
tion or blending together of different parts. 





Fig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 



Q. Describe the next stage of Gothic architecture. 

A. In this stage the principle of continuity is car- 
ried out to its greatest extent, the capitals of columns 
become smaller, and ultimately are disused altogether; 
string courses and bands are more seldom seen, and 
the perpendicular lines are carried up to the top of the 
building, until they are finally lost in the fan-tracery 
of the vaulting. This style has been designated the Tu- 
dor, Rectilinear Continuous, or Perpendicular style. 



62 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Q. What is the shape of the arches in this style? 

A. Pointed but much depressed (Figs. 71-73). This 
style is remarkable for the introduction and use of the 
four-centered arch, which is used for both pier arches, 
Idoors, and windows, but which gets more and more de- 
pressed, until both doors and windows are made with 
square tops, like those of Aylsham and Norwich. 




Fig. 61. 



Q. Describe the window tracery of this period. 

A. The perpendicular principle of this style is 
further carried out by the extension of the mullions up 
to the tops of the windows in place of the flowing tra- 
cery of the preceding style. The immense size of some 
of the windows necessitated the use of transoms to sup- 
port the mullions. 

Q. What were the other characteristics of this 
period ? 

A. The abundant use of paneling both for doors and 
walls, which partakes largely of the character of the 
window tracery. The moldings are not quite so rich 
as those of the preceding styles, bat the excess of oma- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 63 

ment generally is so great as to obtain for this style the 
designation of "Florid." 

Q, Name some examples which may be considered 
as specimens of this style. 




Pig. 62. Fig. 64. Fig. 63. Fig. 65. 

A. Many very beautiful specimens are in existence, 
e. g., Henry VII. 's Chapel at Westminster, parts of 





Fig. 66. Flamboyant Window. Fig. 67. Flowing Tracery. 

Gloucester Cathedral, Winchester College and Cathe- 
dral, St. Michael 's, Coventry, and Trinity Church, Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon. 



64 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Q. What was the style of architecture in use in this 
country in the sixteenth century? 

A. It was termed Debased, or Elizabethan, and an- 
swers to the Renaissance of the French, being a curious 
mixture of the Perpendicular style with the Grecian 
and Roman architecture which was then being revived. 
It is remarkable how few churches were erected dur- 
ing this period, but many very beautiful country man- 
sions belonging to this time are still in existence. 

Q. What is the meaning of the term Renaissance ? 

A. ,The Renaissance is the name given by the French 
to the style which was developed in their country in 





Fig. 68. Continuous Window Fig. 69. Arcade, Romsey Church, 

Head. Hampshire. 

the sixteenth century from a revival of classic detail, 
which was mixed up with French Gothic. 

SOME GENERAL REMARKS. 

The term Gothic was fundamentally incorrect, be- 
cause the architecture to which it was applied was 
nothing more than the natural sequel and outgrowth of 
the Romanesque style, which in turn was derived from 
the Roman architecture. The changes of style which 
came about in the early centuries were due largely to 
alterations in principle of construction, the use of the 
round arch by the Romans taking the place of the lintel 
construction of the Greeks. Official recognition by the 
Emperor Constantine in the year 328 A. D., and his 
zeal in building places of worship, brought about the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUEE 



65 



construction of basilicas. Many of these basilicas were 
formerly Koman halls of justice and were afterward 
used as churches. The arch was used extensively in 
their construction, and their plan had formed the basis 
for almost all places of worship up to the present day. 
The gradual evolution of Christian architecture from 
Italy and elsewhere brought about the style which was 
appropriately called Romanesque. Speaking of Eng- 
land prior to the Norman conquest, there was little or 
no architecture worthy of mention. The few extant 





Fig. 70. HIP-KNOB. COVENTRY. 



Fig. 71. 



remains of Saxon buildings consisted mostly of towers 
and bore a remarkable resemblance to some built in 
Italy about the same period. Their chief peculiarity 
was an arrangement of alternating long and short 
stones at the corners and in vertical strips on the ex- 
terior, which was known as long and short work. With 
the Norman conquest there came extraordinary activity 
in the building of churches and abbeys. These new 
churches were of the Romanesque type, though differ- 
ing somewhat from the Norman-Romanesque churches 



66 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



of the same period. Gothic architecture was derived 
from the Norman-Romanesque, the great change taking 
place in the use of the pointed arch instead of the semi- 
circular one. The pointed arch was the outcome of the 
difficulty of making two arches or vaults over two ad- 
joining spaces of different width, so that they should 
be of the same height. At the end of the twelfth cen- 
tury architects were working out this problem, and with 
the power of the church becoming greater and greater, 
ecclesiastical architecture made rapid strides, and there 
was a remarkable variety in unity to be found in the 
resultant efforts. This variety was due to subdivision 





Fig. 72. 

of labor in the design. The builder seemed to have 
planned only the main scheme of the building, leaving 
the precise form of each detail to be determined ac- 
cording to the skill or fancy of the artisan to whom the 
work was entrusted; and yet, with all this variety, the 
general scheme was much the same. 

The period of Gothic architecture lasted about four 
centuries, in which there were three distinct varieties, 
known as early English, decorated and perpendicular, 
as shown by the changes in the form of window tracery, 
doorways, vaulting and the different forms of moldings 
characteristic of each period. The period of the build- 
ing or portion of the building could most easily be dc- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 67 

termined by the window tracery, the elaboration of 
which was due to the increased use of stained glass. 
The windows not only became more ornate, but much 
larger, until in the late perpendicular period the walls 
seemed to be almost a continuous surface of stained 
glass. At the same time that this occurred the vaulting 
became more and more elaborate, and with the decad- 
ence of Gothic architecture at the end of the fifteenth 
century the vaulting had almost the likeness of lace 
work. 

ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF 

SUCCEEDING STYLES FROM THE ANCIENT GRECIAN TO 

THE ROMANESQUE. 

Q. What different races would be likely to have 
used the primitive forms of habitation you have men- 
tioned, viz., the cave, the tent and the hut? 

A. The cave hollowed out of the earth would be most 
likely to be used by those races who adopted hunting 
and fishing for their pursuits, and would not have 
much time for mechanical occupation. The tent was 
used by those engaged in pastoral duties, on account of 
the frequent removals necessitated by changing pasture 
for their flocks; and the hut was no doubt used by 
those who were engaged in agricultural occupation, and 
required a permanent dwelling near the scene of their 
labors, 

Q. What styles of architecture are most likely de- 
veloped from these original sources? 

A. The architecture of India, Assyria and Egypt was 
no doubt derived from caves and excavations, that of 
China, etc., from the tent, wliile that of Greece and 
Rome was derived from the wooden hut. 

Q. Explain very briefly the grounds for assuming 



68 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

that the excavated cave was the model for Egyptian 
and Indian architecture. 

A. The remains which exist at the present day of 
the Indian rock-cut temples and the similarity between 
these and their edifices above ground go far to prove 
the theory as regards India, while the massiveness and 
the converging walls of Egyptian architecture give 
rise to a similar belief. 

Q. Explain, in a similar manner, the reason for be- 
lieving the tent to have been the model of Chinese ar- 
chitecture. 

A. The principal proof is the form of the roofs, 
which nothing but a tent could have suggested, and 
the extreme lightness of appearance which character- 
izes the style. (See Figs. 73 and 74.) 

Q. Why may it be believed that the principle of 
Grecian architecture was derived from the wooden 
hut? 

A. The chief features of Grecian architecture al- 
ready enumerated all give evidence of their having 
been copied in stone from what were originally timber 
structures; and perhaps it will be well to enumerate 
each portion separately. 

Q. What was the origin of the column? 

A. Trunks of trees driven into the ground to sup- 
port a covering for shelter were the origin of the col- 
umns used to support the porticoes of temples, etc., 
which became one of the chief features of the style. 
As the trees were wider in diameter at the bottom than 
at the top, so the columns were made to diminish in 
thickness as they rose. 

Q. What was the origin of the capitals and bases? 

A. The first step in the formation of an architec- 
tural capital was no doubt a flat slab of stone, tile or 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



wood placed on the top of the column to give it a larger 
surface to receive the architrave. The Doric capital 
consists simply of this square slab or abacus, with an 
echinus and annule or ring below it, and it has been 
suggested that the bases were added to raise the columns 
from the earth to prevent rot from dampness. It must, 



TEMPLE OK APPLLO EFICtlJHIllS AT B/\5&E IN ARCADIA. 




Plate 3. 

however, be remembered that the Doric, the earliest of 
the Grecian orders, had no base. (Plate 3.) 

Q. What was the origin of the fillets at top and bot- 
tom of the shafts? 

A. The column, being originally of wood, no doubt 
had ties or rings of iron at top and bottom to pre- 
vent the wood from splitting, and these were afterward 
imitated in the stone column. 



70 EASY LESSONS IN xiRCHITECTURE 

Q. What was the origin of the architrave? 

A. The architrave, as its name implies, was the chiei 
beam of wood laid horizontally on the tops of the col- 
'umns, and was intended to support the covering of the 
entire building. 

Q. Wliat was the origin of the frieze ? 

A. The joists of the ceiling rested on the architrave, 
and the space occupied by their height was the origin 
of the frieze, the ends of the joists being ornamented 
with triglyphs, and the open spaces between the joist 
formed the metopes, which were afterward filled in solid. 

Q. What was the origin of the pediment ? 

A. The inclined rafters of the roof projected beyond 
the face of the building and the angle formed by the 
pitch of the roof gave the form of the pediment. 

Q. Explain the different parts of the cuts. (Figs. 
30 and 31.) 

A. aa. The architraves. 

bb. The ridge piece or columen. 
c. The king post or columna of a roof. 

dd. The tiebeam or transom. 
e. The strut or capreolus. 

ff. The rafters or contherii. 

gg. The purlins or templa. 

hh. The common rafters or asseres. 

Q. Which of the three Grecian orders gives most 
encouragement to the theory of the wooden model? 

A. The Doric, which was the most ancient, from its 
severe simplicity gives great weight to the theory of its 
having been founded upon a translation into stone of 
previous wooden structures. 

Q. What was the next step in the advancement of 
Grecian architecture? 

A. The Ionic order, which appears to have sacri- 
ficed a certain amount of solidity to the attainment of 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



71 



elegance and finish, and to have lost a great many of 
the characteristics of the wooden model. 

Q. About what period was this? 

A. About the time of Alexander the Great, at a 
period when there was a general outburst of talent, both 
for sculpture and architecture, throughout Greece. 

Q. What was the next advance made in the art? 

A. The Corinthian order, which exhibits still further 
the progress of the art. The beautiful capital of 
acanthus leaves, the elegant frieze and the costly mar- 
bles used in its construction combined to make this the 
most elegant and delicate of the three Grecian orders. 




dj 




g , -jf 


'^^ 


1 tH ^ 


-3»5^^^^ ^ 


ffi 


^^^^^^^^ 



Jjzigi? 



Fig. 74. 75. 

Q. Are the remains of Grecian workmanship nu- 
merous ? 

A. No; unfortunately, they are very scarce; and it 
is conjectured that owing to the value of the materials 
employed many of the most splendid buildings were 
taken down by the Romans after their conquest of the 
country and re-erected in Rome to increase the glories 
of their own capital. 

Q. What put a stop to the further development of 
Grecian architecture? 

A. The entire subjugation of that country by the 
Romans. 



72 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Q. To whom must we now look for the further de- 
velopment of the art ? 

A. To the Romans, who, although they had a style 
of their own, founded on the principle of the arch, 
acknowledged the intellectual superiority of the Greeks 
and submitted to their teaching in the matters of art; 
and much that was thoroughly good in their own style 
was disguised or concealed by Greek decoration. 

Q. Did the Romans go the proper way to work to 
develop their own style of architecture? 

A. No; they sacrificed their own superior construc- 
tive genius, which, if strictly adhered to and properly 
developed, might in their hands have produced the most 
stupendous results, for the sake of a foreign ornamen- 
tation which, however beautiful, was entirely unsuited 
to their peculiar principle of construction, the Greek 
capital and entablature being thoroughly antagonistic 
to the principal feature of pure Roman work. 

Q. What was the constructive principle of pure Ro- 
man work? 

A. The real principle of ancient Roman architecture 
was that of the arch, and the remains of their build- 
ings where Grecian decoration was abstained from prove 
that they were constructed with a massiveness and 
strength which has rarely been equaled since. 

Q. "What was probably the origin of the arch? 

A. It is not improbable that the first idea of the 
arch was suggested by the inclined struts which were 
often used in timber structures to lessen the strain on 
a beam, and which were placed from the sides of the 
columns to the under side of the beam. But in truth 
the theories which profess to account for the origin of 
this form of construction are almost endless. 

Q. "What was the character of Roman workmanship ? 



EASY LESSONS IN AECHITECTUKE 73 

A. The detail of Eoman workmanship was more 
meretricious in effect and possessed greater richness 
than the Grecian, but was destitute of the chaste sim- 
plicity, sublimity and grandeur of the Grecian model. 

Q. What was the first symptom of decay in Roman 
architecture ? 

A. The abandonment of columns from their natural 
and legitimate use as a means of support and their em- 
ployment merely for ornament, in many instances being 
half imbedded in the walls, 

Q. "What was the immediate cause of the decline of 
Grecian and Roman architecture? 

A. The overthrow of the Roman power by the 
northern races of Europe, who stripped the temples, etc., 
of all the gorgeous decorations with which they were 
adorned, and so revealed the genuine principle of con- 
struction, which became in their hands the germ of a 
style which, when fully developed, contained in it all 
that was beautiful and grand. 

ON THE ROMANESQUE STYLES. 

Q. What was the next step toward the development 
of a new style and the disuse of the ancient ? 

A. The transition period from the Roman style to 
the succeeding one was marked by the abandonment of 
the use of the Grecian entablature above the columns, 
and the use of arches of a semicircular form for win- 
dow and other openings which sprung immediately from 
the imposts of the columns. 

Q. What was the name given to the architecture 
which succeeded that of Rome? 

A. The Romanesque. 

Q. What particular styles of architecture are in- 
cluded in the Romanesque? 



74 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

A. The term Romanesque embraces all those styles 
of architecture which prevailed between the destruc- 
tion of the Roman Empire and the use of the vertical 
Mediaeval style, and in it may be included the Saxon, 
Norman and Lombard styles. 

Q. What are the chief characteristics? 

A. They partake much of the character of the de- 
based Roman style, which accounts for the name of Ro- 
manesque. The style is also called Byzantine from its 
introduction at Byzantium. This style may be con- 
sidered as the progenitor of the Mediseval styles, as in 
it may be found the germ of many features which 
were afterward developed and brought to perfection in 
them. 

Q. What peculiar kind of roof is often introduced 
in Romanesque or Byzantine buildings? 

A. The cupola, which is a kind of dome, and con- 
structed on the principle of the arch. 

Q. What model did the Romanesque builders em- 
ploy in their erection of the early Christian churches? 

A. The earliest Christian churches appear to have 
been built upon a model of the Roman Basilica or Hal] 
of Justice, which was dividjed down the middle by 
rows of columns forming aisles, and in many cases had 
a semicircular recess at the end, no doubt suggesting 
the idea of the apsidal termination to the chancel, no- 
ticeable in the remains of many Saxon and Norman 
churches. 

Q. Describe the Saxon style. 

A. The Saxon style was that species of Romanesque 
which was in use in England before the Norman was 
introduced. It was of simple character, and no doubt 
the greater portion of the churches, etc., were of wood, 
the existing remains exhibiting evidence of their having 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 75 

been copied in stone from previous wooden models. 
The round arch was used and occasionally the pillars 
were octagonal. The remains of Saxon workmanship 
in the old parish churches are very numerous, but they 
are of a very fragmentary character. 

Q. What was the Norman style? 

A. The Norman style was that species of Roman- 
esque which was practiced by the Normans, and which 
was introduced and fully developed in England after 
they had established themselves in it. 

Q. Describe the chief features of the Norman style. 

A. Plainness and massiveness are the chief charac- 
teristics of the earlier examples. The arches, windows 




Pis.. 76. CORNICE SUPPORTED BY CONSOLES 

and doorways were semicircular. The pillars are very 
massive, and are often built of small stones laid like 
brickwork, (Fig. 45.) 

Q. Are the later examples as plain as the earlier? 

A. No; as the style progressed the ornamentation 
was more elaborate, and in later examples the arches, 
doorways and windows are most richly molded (Fig. 
42), and often sculptured with grotesque figures. 
Many beautiful examples of Norman aj-t remain, e. g., 
parts of Petersborough, Ely, Norwich, Hereford, and 
Gloucester Cathedrals, and the Chapel of St. Cross, 
Winchester. 



76 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Q. What other features do the later specimens of 
Norman work present? 

A. The elevation of the interior, and the division 
into the triple range of pier arch, triforium, and cleres- 
tory. This is a great advance toward the pure Gothic 
principle, but it is as yet only partial, as the horizontal 
lines between each remained unbroken. 

Q. What further advance was required to develop 
fully the Gothic principle? 

A. The transitional progress of the Norman style 
from a Romanesque to a Gothic character was further 
marked by the introduction of small vertical shafts 




Fig. 77. Fig. 78. 

running up the piers of the roof, dividing the triforium 
and clerestory into parts. The effect of the horizontal 
division into layers of the Romanesque style is now 
gone, and the vertical principle of Gothic architecture 
begins to establish itself. In many later examples of 
Norman work, the departure from the Romanesque 
principle is so great as to remove them entirely from 
the Romanesque class to the Gothic. 

Q. What other change was now necessary to es- 
tablish fully the principle of Gothic architecture? 

A. The universal adoption of the pointed arch, in 
place of the semicircular, was alone needed to estab- 
lish fully the principle of verticality, which is one of 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 77 

the principal characteristics of pure Gothic architec- 
ture. 

Q. Were the Normans good builders? 

A. It can hardly be said that they were good 
builders, for notwithstanding the massiveness of their 
works they appear to have been careless with their foun- 
dations, often commencing new work upon the founda- 
tions of old buildings. Very many of their towers 




Fig. 79. 

have fallen from' this cause, and the fact of our having 
so many remains of their work may be attributed to 
the immense masses of stone employed in their ma- 
sonry, rather than to the skill with which they were 
laid. 

Q. What is the Lombard style? 

A. The Lombard style was that species of Roman- 
esque which was in use on some parts of the Continent 



78 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



of Europe during the periods when the Saxon and 
Norman styles were in use in this country, and corres- 
ponded with them in its development into the Conti- 
nental Gothic. 



ON THE MODERN STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. 

Q, What course was adopted by architects on the 
decline of Gothic architecture? 

A. They tried to adopt the ancient Grecian and Ro- 
man styles to modem requirements, an attempt which 
resulted in the production of what is now termed the 
Italian style. 




Fig. 80. 

Q. Describe the Italian style. 

A. The Italian, which embraces the Florentine, 
modem Roman and Venetian schools, may be considered 
as an adaptation of the Greek and Roman orders. 
(Figs. 76, 77, 78 and 79.) 

Q. "What are the chief features of the Florentine 
style ? 

A. The Florentine, a variety of the Italian style, is 
characterized by the absence of columns on the* outside 
and by massive cornices with which the buildings are 
crowned. This style has rather a heavy appearance. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



79 



The Pandolfini Palace, Fig. 80, at Florence is a very 
good example. 

Q. Describe the chief features of the modern Roman 
style. 

A. The buildings of this style present a most im- 
posing appearance, which is not marred by the too 
great severity of the Florentine school, and the use of 
columns in the facades renders them more light and 
pleasing. The Farnese Palace at Rome, Fig. 81, is a 
beautiful example of this style. The churches at Rome 




Fig. 81. 

built in this style are characterized by an excessive 
amount of ornament. (See also Fig. 82.) 

Q. What special feature is introduced in the style 
known as the Venetian? 

A. The use of rustic work for the basement and 
ground floors, which consist in the front edges of the 
stones being beveled or molded, so that there is a space 
of one and a half inches or two inches round each stone 
on the face. The Pompeii Palace, Fig. 82, at Verona, 
and the Church of St. Mark at Venice are beautiful 
specimens of this style. 

Q. What is a Mezzanine? 



80 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



A. A low intermediate story which is sometimes 
made in the Italian styles, to run between two stories 
of greater height. 

Q. Give the names of two celebrated architects who 
introduced the Italian style into England with great 
success, with examples of their works. 

A. Inigo Jones, who designed the banqueting house 
at Whitehall, and Sir Christopher Wren, who de- 
signed St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Stephen's Walbrook, 




Fig. 82. 

and nearly all the other churches in the city of Lon- 
don, which were rebuilt after the great fire. 

Q. What is the present style of architecture? 

A. There is no style of architecture that can, strictly 
speaking, be called that of the present period. The 
architecture of the present day is chiefly copied or modi- 
fied from the ancient and mediaeval styles; and archi- 
tects seem to hope that by strictly adhering to the 
genuine principles of both, a new style may gradually 
be developed. 



THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES OF 
ANTIQUITY. 

PART II. 

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. 

ROCK-TEMPLES. 

1. Our knowledge of Indian architecture is essen- 
tially of modern growth, inasmuch as no reference to 
the subject is to be found in ancient European writ- 
ings. Although, however, modern research and infor- 
mation are in general only partial, still they are suffi- 
cient for the acquisition of a knowledge of the peculiari- 
ties of Indian art. Our investigations on this subject 
are favored by the fact that the ancient Hindoo race 
has subsisted to our own day, and has erected its monu- 
ments in the same distinctive type, although many 
minor alterations may have supervened with the lapse 
of time. 

2. When we take into consideration the great in- 
fluence which the religion of the Hindoos exercised on 
the form of their buildings, it may be advisable, before 
proceeding further, to mention some particulars of the 
principal features of their worship. 

In the religipn of the Hindoos a distinction must be 
observed between the creeds of Brahma and of Baddha. 
They conceive Brahma, as the Supreme Being, to be 
formless. All emanations from him are worshipped and 
placed in their temples as idols: Siva, the great god, 
81 



82 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

the productive and at the same time destructive power 
of Nature, whose symbol is fire, and Vishnu, the pre- 
serving power, whose symbol is water. 

These three chief gods, Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu, 
are also worshipped conjointly as a three-headed figure. 
Besides them, there is a large number of gods of in- 
ferior rank. 

3. Various sects exist among the Hindoos, the prin- 
cipal, however, are the Brahmins and the Buddhists, 
which are essentially antagonistic. The religion of Bud- 
dha claims to be a purer form of Brahminism, and 
Gautama, king of Magadha, surnamed Buddha, i. e., 
The Sage, is considered as its founder. The epoch when 
he lived is uncertain ; it was, however, not later than 
543 B. C, with which date, as that of the introduc- 
tion of Buddhism into Ceylon, the chronology of the 
island begins. The religion of Buddha still prevails in 
Ceylon, as also in the Malay peninsula and in many of 
the East Indian islands, in the greater part of the 
Chinese empire, in Thibet, and amongst the Mongolian 
tribes. 

4. Two classes of monuments are to be distinguished 
in Indian architecture, besides later Mahometan build- 
ings, which are not to be considered amongst the con- 
structions of the Hindoos: viz., real structural build- 
ings and cave-temples, hewn out of the solid rock. 

5. The latter kind of structure is frequent in the 
mountainous district of the Deccan and in the islands of 
Elphanta and Salsette, in the neighborhood of Bombay, 
especially at Kanneri ; in the interior of the country and 
caves at Karli and Mhar, and those near Nassuk and 
Ajunta, and above all, the marvellous and magnificent 
temple of Ellora, are especially worthy of mention. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 83 

6. We possess but little reliable information regard- 
ing the age of Indian architectural remains. The dawn 
of Indian civilization began, speaking in round num- 
bers, between 2000 and 3000 B. C, while the date of 
the earliest sacred writings of the people, viz., the Veda, 
may be assigned to about 1400 B. C. ; and that of the 
great epic poems, the principal of which are the Ram- 
ayana and the Mahabharata, to about 1000 B. C. It was 
in these poems and through these poems as in the ease of 
the Greeks, that the diversified religious system of the 
Hindoos, namely, Brahminism, was developed. In the 
middle of the sixth century B. C. the above-mentioned 
establishment of Buddhism took place, and in the sixth 
century A, D. the extirpation of that religion from 
India, by which time, however, it had extended itself 
over the countries which have been previously enumer- 
ated. 

7. The cave-temples are earlier than the structural 
ones; and amongst these a distinction is to be drawn 
between the Brahmin, which are the older, and the 
Buddhist. 

Their general characteristics are rendered obscure by 
the multiformity of Indian architecture, and by a want 
of any settled method: since in excavating the rock 
neither organic laws nor constructive principles guided 
the work, as must needs be the case with structural 
buildings, but a purely arbitrary scheme based on an 
uncultivated taste, as well as an uncontrolled fancy, 
determined the shape of the design. The following 
points may, however, be selected as being, to a certain 
extent, normal:- — 

8. The Brahmin cave-temples (Fig. 1) are, as a rule, 
open in front, and are sometimes connected with an 



84 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



independent structure hewn out of the solid rock. 
They consist, generally, of a main quadrangular space, 
on which the sanctuary containing the image of the 
god stands; in some instances side spaces also occur. 
This space is low, with a fiat roof, supported by col- 
umns or piers, the front row of which forms the facade 
of the temple. Courts with colonnades and side spaces 
in front of them are also met with. In some cases 
several temple-Spaces are found in continuous proces- 




£^y^.J 



Pig. 1. CAVE-TEMPLE OF DUMAS-SEYNA AT ELLORA. 
A — Entrance. B — Rock-Temple. C — Smajl Shrine. 



A clear space, open above, is hewn out of the rock, 
and surrounds the detached and independent portions 
of the temple, which consequently has the appearance 
of being formed of a block left in the center, the ex- 
ternal configuration of which is shown by Figure 2, 
which represents the so-called Kylas at EUora, which 
was formed about 1000 A. D. In the interior a grotto 
has been excavated, with several smaller caves in the 
background. The walls of rock which surround the 
open space are pierced with galleries containing little 
shrines. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



85 



9. The Buddhist cave-temples differ principally from 
the Brahmin in not having an open exterior. The in- 
ternal design of these temples is invariably an oblong 
space terminating in a semi-circle at the further ex- 
tremity, surrounded, by a narrow passage, which is 




Fig. 2. KYLAS AT ELLORA. 



separated from the main space by rows of pillars. The 
vault-like roof is excavated in the shape of an elongated 
semi-circle, and at times assumes a horse-shoe form. 
The roof of the passage is flat. In the background of 
the central space is the shrine, with the constantly re- 
curring symbol of Buddhism, the so-called Dagoba, a 
hemispherical block resting on a cylindrical pedestal, 
and figurative of a water-bubble, to which the creed of 



86 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Buddha likens the human frame, and which is especially 
intended to portray the transient nature of all that is 
earthly. 

10. The following peculiarities of detail should be 
especially noticed in the Indian rock-temples. The 
vegetable kingdom is but little represented in the dec- 




Plg. 3. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF BUDDHIST CAVE-TEMPLE AT 
WISNA KARMA AT ELLORA. 



orations, which consist on the contrary of combinations 
of straight and curved lines, and of globular and flat 
shapes. Animals are also employed in the ornamenta- 
tion, Avith a preference for the more powerful beasts, 
such as lions and elephants; these are introduced as 
guardians in front of the entrances, while in the in- 
terior they answer the purpose of supports, or are em- 



EAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 87 

ployed as ornaments in the capitals and friezes. These 
animals have probably a symbolic meaning, for both 
are considered sacred, and according to the Hindoo 
conception of transmigration, the souls of the mighty 
are destined to inhabit the bodies of the most powerful 
beasts. The bulk and weight of these animal forms 
is in entire accordance with the architectural style of 




Fig. 4. INDIAN PILLAR FROM THE ROCK-TEMPLE OP PARASONA 
RAMA AT ELLORA. 



the whole structure ; as is also the ease with the colossal 
human figures, which are ranged along the walls, cut 
out in prominent relief. These figures must have cre- 
ated an impression of awe in the dim twilight which 
reigned in the temple. 



8» 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



11. The supports, which in every other style, whether 
as piers or columns, constitute the distinctive element, 
assume a vast variety of forms. In some instances, 
especially in the Buddhist caves, they are quite plain, 
quadrangular or octagonal in shape, and ornamented at 
the top with a shallow carved moulding, and surmounted 
by an abacus. They are generally, however, richer, and 
composed of four principal parts: (1) of a quadrangu- 
lar base, which is higher than it is broad, and which 
terminates above in a sharp arris or in a kind of volute. 




Fig. 5. INTERIOR OF ROCK-TEMPLE OF INDRA AT ELLORA. 



On this rests (2) a short round shaft, which springs 
like a stem from its socket, and which is ornamented 
either with vertical bands or with flutes. Three circu- 
lar bands of the same type constitute (3) the neck, on 
which rests (4) the capital, which generally assumes the 
shape of a flattened sphere, and which, as is shown in 
Fig. 5, in most instances supports a quadrangular su- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



89 



perstructure, with corbels and an architrave above, on 
which rests the roof. Since, consequently, none of the 
individual parts, which have astragals carried round 
them, stand out prominently, the unity of the pier must 




Fig. 



INDIAN PILLAR. 



naturally suffer, and the columns appear squat and 
heavy, owing to their want of height in comparison with 
the breadth. This form of pier is also the basis of the 
columnar construction in structural edifices. 



90 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

12. Other capitals have the form of a cube instead of 
a sphere, and have volutes of a ram's-horn shape below. 
In this case the structure over the quadrangular pedestal 
is not round, but octagonal and ornamented at the sides. 

The capitals are, moreover, sometimes covered with 
figures of animals, as has been mentioned above. At a 
much later period supports are met with in structural 
buildings, though not in rock-temples, formed of carv- 
ings of symbolical figures in high relief, as is shown by 
the pillar in Figure 6. 

13. The pillars in the Buddhist cave constructions 
are, for the most part, when compared with the Brahmin 
rock-temples, more slender and more beautiful, their 
rows closer, their ornamentation less excessive ; the walls 
are not covered with semi-detached figures, and the whole 
is altogether simpler and freer. 

In the same way as the most massive forms were in 
accordance with the precepts of the religion of Siva, so 
the more enlightened creed of Buddha called forth a 
simpler form of structure, and the architectural develop- 
ment maintained its connection with the religious. 

These heavy massive shapes, these gloomy recesses, en- 
cumbered with gigantic carvings, are very deficient as 
works of art; but, by their very shortcomings, they ac- 
cord with the dark fantastic spirit of the heathen creeds 
of Hindostan. 

14. "With a view to the preservation of the relics of 
Buddha, or of priests and kings who were considered 
as sacred, dagobas of various sizes were constructed, 
called in the vernacular Topes, from the Sanscrit stupa 
(tumulus) i. e. body-hiding (Fig. 7). They consist of 
a cylinder-shaped substructure with pilasters, on which 
rests a second substructure without pilasters, supporting 



EASY LESSONS IN A.RCHITECTUBE 91 

a superstructure like a cupola. The upper part of this 
spheroidal dome is in every instance destroyed, and it 
is consequently impossible to discover what further 
adornment crowned the whole edifice. The cupola con- 
struction is, however, only external, for the interior con- 
sists entirely of massive masonry, with the exception of 
some small spaces, in which, for the most part, were 
found valuables, such as jewels and coins of the period 
of from 100 b. c. to 600 a. d. This cupola form is con- 




Pig. 7. TOPEJ OR STUPA. 

sidered to typify the water-bubble (which was held V»j 
the Buddhists to be the symbol of earthly transitori- 
ness), inasmuch as the art of vaulting was still unknown, 
and the massive masonry only assumes that shape in the 
exterior, 

15. Many such monuments are to be found in the 
islands of the Indian Archipelago, especially in the 
island of Java; as particularly noteworthy may be mez:» 
tioned those of Brambanan and Boro-Budor, which^ 
however, are supposed to have been erected not earlier 
than 1100-1300 A. d. A great number of them are to be 



92 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



found on the Indus at Monikyala and Beloor, and also 
in Cabul, on both sides of the highway which leads from 
India to Persia and Bactria. 

As mentioned above, similar dagobas of small dimen- 
sions, proportionate to the size of the construction, are 
erected in the sanctuaria of the temples. 



\m 

W 



=r= 






■" 


: 


,. 




• 


J 


:... 










Fig. 8. GROUND-PLAN OF THE PAGODA AT CHILLIMBARAM- 



PAGODAS. 



16. According to the description of a town given in 
the epic poem of Ramayana, an art, which was at the 
same time flourishing and magnificent, had given rise 
to structural buildings as early as 1000 years before the 
Christian era. Nothing reliable can be adduced con- 
cerning the age of the existing structural temples of 
India, which are called pagodas, from the word bhagar- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



98 



ati, i. e. sacred house. They belong both to antiquity 
and modern times. 

Some of these pagodas are wonderfully large and mag- 
nificent. They consist (Fig. 8) of one or more quad- 
rangular courts with towers at the corners, surrounded 
by a wall (a). Large pyramids (&) rising in stages 
cover the entrance (Fig. 9), behind which extend colon- 




ENTRANCE TO A PAGODA. 



nades. Inside the courts are lustral pools, colonnades, 
large halls, called Tschultris, which are used to lodge 
pilgrims in. Small side-temples appear with cupolas 
surmounting the accessory buildings. Behind the court 
is often a second and a third, in which, finally, the chief 
temple stands. Although the architecture of all these 



94 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

constructive designs has no pretensions to artistic or 
stylic importance, still the drawings, Figures 10 and 11, 
illustrate, in forming an opinion of these buildings, how 
a wonderfully fantastic effect is produced by a tasteless 
excess in peculiar ornamentation and architectural fea- 
tures. 




Fig. 10. TEMPLE OF VIMALA SALE (JAINA ARCHITECTURE 
12th CENTURY). 



17. The most important of these pagodas are those 
oE Madura, Tanjore, and Chillimbaram. The island of 
Kamisseram furnishes also a large number of these 
sacred buildings, which are, in their way, magnificent. 
The most celebrated is the Pagoda of Juggernaut, which 
was only completed towards the end of the twelfth cen- 
tury after Christ. This was built after the model of 
the older temples which are now in ruins, and to be 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



95 



found in numbers in the neighborhood of the existing 
building. Monstrous swarthy idols, with eyes of spark- 
ling diamonds, are ranged in the interior. The chief 




Fig. U- PILLAR IN FEIMAL NAIK'S TSCHULTRI. 



temple stands in the middle of a large square court, 
which is surrounded by a wall, and at the vast entrance 
are placed two enormous griffins, or winged lions in a 



96 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



sitting posture, facing eastwards. The main building 
consists of an octagonal tower, 180 feet high, resting 




Fig. 12. PAGODA. 



Fig. 13. 



on a square base. The angles of the eight sides of the 
tower are cut off diamond-wise, by which sixteen sides 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



97 



are formed, which are ornamented with flutes, and, ap- 
proaching one another above in arched curves, form a 
sort of dome, on the top of which a knob or crown unites 
all the sixteen sides together. ' From the vestibule in 
front of the entrance an uninterrupted view is obtained 
of the idol which stands in the midst of the temple. Be- 
hind the principal temple are colonnades, towers, and 
shrines of inferior gods. The whole is encircled with 
mouldings, human and animal figures, embellishments 
and inscriptions. 




Fig. 14. ELEVATION OF THE ENTRANCE-GATE OF THE TEMPLE 
AT CHILLIMBARAM. 



18. All these buildings are of a pyramidal shape, 
with vertical stages, which are separated by curved roofs 
and terminate above in the form of a cupola (Fig. 12). 
Rows of small cupolas stand out from the roofs of the 
stages. The walls of these stages are covered in a be- 
wildering way with pilasters and niches, with intricately 
cut cornices, with varied intersecting mouldings, and 
with manifold and fantastic embellishments and carv- 
ings. The pillars, which are round or octagonal, resem- 



98 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



ble the columnar structure of the rock temples, and are 
richly ornamented in every part. The inner spaces are 
low and dark, but the cupolas are high and narrow. 
(The cucurbitaceous, i. e., gourd-shape cupolas of the 
more recent pagodas, with fluted pointed arches, are 
borrowed from Mahometan architecture.) 




Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 



To sum up, it should particularly be observed that in 
these structures full massive forms, instead of simple 
and suitable ones, predominate ; that a pyramidal super- 
structure takes the place of the rectilineal and rectangu- 
lar; and that, finally, neither the main outlines nor the 
minuter details are determined by fixed laws, but rather 
by arbitrary discretion. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



99 



Figure 13 represents a pilaster at the entrance-gate 
of the temple at Chillimbaram (Fig. 14), Figure 15 a 
column, Figure 16 a moulding, and Figure 17 a front 
of a temple of late Indian style. 




Fig. 17. ENTRANCE-GATE OF A TEMPLE AT BBJANUGGUR. 
16th Century. 



EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



19. We possess varied information regarding the ex- 
istence of an early civilization in Egypt, both from the 
Bible and from Greek and Roman authors. Religion, 
as well as peculiar manners and customs, exercised a 
great influence on the form of architecture. Besides 
other gods, Osiris and Isis were especially venerated; 
perhaps because a peculiar relationship was established 
between the inundation of the Nile and the synchronous 



100 ExVSY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

change in the sun's orbit. This yearly inundation of 
the Nile was of the very highest importance, as it was 
only from this source that the land derived its fertility. 
Many of the gods were represented with heads of beasts : 
and various animals were themselves accounted sacred, 
as cats, serpents, dogs, ibis, hawks. Two bulls met with 
especial veneration; Apis at Memphis, and Mneris at 
Heliopolis. 

20, It is supposed that Egyptian religion and culture 
took their rise in the district of Meroe in the interior of 
Africa, and that following the course of the Nile they 
thence spread over Egypt, where, at first, Thebes and 
Memphis, and in later times under the Greek kings, 
Alexandria especially, were powerful and important 
places; particularly the first-mentioned of these towns, 
as its mighty ruins testify, which are situated in the 
neighborhood of the present town of Shenay, and not 
far from the villages of Assur, Naha and Messura. 

21. The development of Egyptian culture is to be 
sought in the primeval history of this people, and its 
origin may be assigned to as early a date as about 1700 
B. c, when the country was freed from the nomad race 
of the Hyksos, which had burst over it several centuries 
previously. 

The essentially brilliant period of Egyptian art was 
in the middle of the twelfth century, b. c, in the reign 
of Sesostris or Ramases at Thebes, as is to be seen by the 
stupendous monumental buildings and figurative repre- 
sentations of that king, which have reference to his 
glorious campaigns, and on which his name shines re- 
splendent. This flourishing condition of Egypt lasted 
for centuries; till about the middle of the seventh cen- 
tury, B. c, Psammeticus by the admittance of foreigners 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 101 

partially put an end to the exelusiveness which the 
country had hitherto enjoyed. From the beginning of 
the sixth century, b. c, however, the country was sub- 
jected to the Persians under Cambyses, then, from the 
time of Alexander the Great, to Grecian rulers, till it 
finally passed under the sway of Rome. Still, however, 
during these various periods, Egyptian nationality main- 
tained its existence till the epoch of the extension oi 
Christianity. Through this agency, and especially in 
consequence of the conquest of the country by the Arabs 
at the beginning of the Middle Ages, the old order o£ 
things was changed, and a new condition was effectuated. 

22. From the expulsion of the Hyksos till about the 
third century, b. c, a culture, which lasted for 2,000 
years, is to be traced in the monuments of Egypt. In 
all probability, however, the epoch of the origin of mnny 
of these monuments must be accepted as a much earJier 
one : for when the yearly average rise of the soil through 
the inundation of the Nile is taken into consideration, 
the present elevation of the surface above the old level 
on which the monuments of Thebes Were erected, leads 
us to the conclusion that they must have been con- 
structed about 4,760 years before the commencement of 
the present century, that is to say, 3,000 years before the 
birth of Christ. In these monuments at Thebes frag- 
ments have been found which were wrought in a similar 
style on the reverse side, and which must therefore have 
formed part of former buildings, and this fact points to 
the conclusion of the existence of an already long-estab- 
lished culture at the time of the construction of the pres- 
ent monuments. 

23. The monuments of the golden age of Egyptian 
art, namely, the time of Sesostris, are those of Homer's 



102 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

hundred-gated Thebes, the capital of ancient Egypt, the 
diameter of which city was two geographical miles each 
way. Its ruins are called after the villages which now 
stand on its site, as the temples and palaces of Luxor 
and Karnak, with an avenue of colossal sphinxes 6,000 
feet long; a palace and the sepulchers of Medinet Abu 
and Kurnah. Here, too, in the neighborhood are to be 
seen the Rock-Tombs, the so-called "graves of the kings," 
and still further, below Thebes, the Temple of Tentyris 
(Denderah). 




Fig. 18. PYRAMID OF GHIZEH. 



24. The most important of the monuments of Nubia, 
and which have only become known in our own times, 
are the Rock-Temples of Ipsamboul, the monuments of 
Derri, Kalabsche, &c. 

In Upper Egypt, the well-preserved temples in the 
islands of Philai and Elephantina; those of Syene, Om- 
bos, Esneh, &c. 

In Central and Lower Egypt no important remains 
exist: of the capital, Memphis, we find only tombs, and 
the pyramids, the sepulchers of the kings. 

The Egyptian monuments, of which we possess any 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 103 

knowledge, consist for the most part of pyramids, the 
tombs of the kings, and their palaces and temples. 

25. The pyramids (Fig. 18) form a distinct class by 
themselves in Egyptian architecture, and present no 
points of resemblance with other structures. Their form 
is substantially invariable — a simple mass resting on a 
square, or sometimes approximately square, base, with 
the side facing with slight deviations towards the four 
principal winds, and tapering off gradually towards the 
top to a point or to a flat surface, as a substitute for this 
apex. 

The proportion of the base to the height is not always 
the same, nor is the angle of inclination uniform. 

The pyramids were constructed in platforms, and then 
reveted or coated with blocks or slabs of granite, as may 
still be observed in incomplete pyramids. Eecently the 
supposition has been maintained that in the case of the 
ijjrgest pyramids, a smaller one was first erected as a 
nucleus, and subsequently enveloped by another layer. 

The interior of these massive structures contains nar- 
row passages and some totally dark halls or chambers, 
and probably served as the burial-places of the kings 
who had caused them to be constructed. The entrance 
to these buildings is raised considerably above the level 
of the base, and was blocked-up by a portcullis of granite, 
so as to be on ordinary occasions inaccessible. In the 
pyramid of Cheops the entrance is raised about 47 ft. 
6 in. above the base. From thence a passage about 320 ft. 
long conducts at an angle of 26° 41' downwards to a 
chamber whose roof is about 90 ft. beneath the base of 
the pyramid. From this chamber leads a corridor which 
has not yet been explored. As the section in Fig. 19 
shows, another passage, starting in an upward direction 



104 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



from the above-mentioned downward-sloping corridor 
leads to another chamber, and a still further passage 




Fig. 19. SECTION OF THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS AT GHIZEH. 

branching off again, and growing smaller as it ascends 
(Fig. 20) conducts to the so-called Crowning Hall or 




^-^'5^ 



Fig. 20. SECTION OF A CORRIDOR IN THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. 

King's Chamber, which is 34 ft. 3 in. long, and 17 ft. 
I in. bread. 
The roof of this apartment is formed of massive blocks 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 105 

of granite, over which, with a view to supporting the 
weight, other blocks are laid, with clear intervals be- 
tween (Fig. 21). The size of the pyramids is various, 




6 10 

Fig. 21. SECTION OP GRANITE BLOCK ROOFED CHAMBER IN 
THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. 



but for the most part very considerable. The largest is 
one of those at Ghizeh, and has a perpendicular height 
of 448 ft. and a breadth of 728 ft. on each side of the 
base. 



106 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



In an esthetic point of view, these buildings occupy 
an inferior rank. The impression which they make is 
to be ascribed to their size and striking simplicity as well 




Pig. 22. TEMPLE OF EDFU. 

A. — Pylon. B — Obelisks. C — Entrance. D — Temple-Court. E — Porti- 

cus. F — Pronaos (Court with colonnades). G — Noas. 

H — Sanctuarium. 



as to the associations which fancy may link with them. 

26. The principal elements in the designs of the 

Temples (Fig. 22) consist, firstly, of the temple building 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 107 

itself, with its vestibules and side-buildings wbicli served 
as dwelling-places for the priests; secondly, of a closed 
court which surrounded the actual temple ; and, thirdly, 
of a stupendous entrance-gate of peculiar shape, called 
the Pylon. 

In some instances a second forecourt occurred, before 
which was likewise a pylon, and occasionally even a 
third pylon was found. 




ilBlinihllll!!!!, 1 ' ' - I I ll'i" I, lull Pljll 

Fig 23. SPHINX AT THEBES. 



The avenues to these pylons, which are in many in- 
stances 6,000 ft. long, lead through rows (dromos) of 
colossal sphinxes or rams (Fig. 23), and through various 
other smaller entrance-gates, resembling the pylon in 
form. 

27. The pylon (Figs. 24 and 25), the main entrance- 
gate, which conducts into the front-court, overlooks all 
the other gates and the whole structure of the temple. 
The pylon consists of three parts — namely, of two flank- 
ing towers, and the gateway thus formed between them. 

This gateway again is flanked by perpendicular jambs 



108 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 24. PYLON AT THE PALACE AT LUXOR. 




Pig. 25. 



PROFILE OF PYLON. Fig. 22, WITH COLOSSAL STATUE 
AND OBELISK. 



adorned with sculptures, and covered by an entablature 
consisting of a fillet and a large cavetto. A symbolical 
carving (Fig. 26) is introduced into this entablature 
and repeated over every doorway in the interior of the 
temple, namely an egg or globe with a wing at each side. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 109 

The two flanking towers of tlie pylons have each an 
oblong base, the longer side being turned towards the 
front, and the shorter towards the inside of the gateway 
(compare Fig. 22). They are, to a certain extent, pyram- 
idal in shape, inasmuch as the external surfaces slope 
slightly inwards (see profile of the Pylon, Fig. 25), and 
consist only of a flat, wall-like surface, adorned through- 
out with colored sculpture and girt with astragals, and 
of an entablature formed of a flUet and deeply-project- 
ing cavetto. The roof of these constructions is flat. 




Fig. 26. ENTABLATURE OVER DOOR-WAY AT THE GREAT TEM- 
PLE AT PHILAE. 



They contain several dark rooms, whose object is un- 
certain. The chief aim of the pylons seems to have been 
to give an imposing appearance to the entrance. To this 
end colossal statues and obelisks were introduced in 
front of the pylons (see Fig. 25). Obelisks are square 
diminishing monumental columns capped with a pyram- 
idal point. On festive occasions flagstaffs were hoisted 
from the pylons. That these pylons were intended mere- 
ly for gates, and not for buildings with an independent 
purpose, may be assumed from the small proportion 
which their depth bears to their length. They were gen- 
erally constructed of colossal dimensions. For instance, 
the first pylon at the Palace of Karnak is 370 ft. long by 
48 ft. deep. 



110 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

On the pylon abuts the fore-court with corridors (see 
Fig. 22 D) with rows of columns (E) either at the two 
side walls, or on all the four sides; or sometimes only 
on three. On these columns rest cross-pieces of stone, 
which form an architrave and support the roof -slabs of 
the area. They thus form a kind of entablature, which, 
as in the case of the pylons, is surrounded by an astragal 
and shaped like a cornice (Fig. 27). 

The space between the columns is generally about one 
and a half time, rarely double, the diameter of the lower 
part of the shafts. 




Fig. 27. CORNICE ENTABLATURE AT THE GREAT TEMPLE AT 
PHILAE. 



28. Passing through the colonnade the temple (Fig. 
28) is reached; in no instance at once the inner sanctu- 
ary, but other initiatory spaces, which invariably occur: 
and, firstly, an entrance-hall, "the polystyle hall" (Fig. 
22 F ) is entered, the roof of which is supported by many 
columns, and then follow two or more other ent^:-ance- 
chambers, wliich all, however, appear more as belong- 
ing to the structure than the outer area does ; for temples 
of tolerable size are met with in which the outer areas 
are wanting, but not a single one in which the columnar 
entrance-halls do not occur, 'the columns form three 
or four rows, the rows which face the court being closed 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



111 



in by walls of about half the height of the columns, and 
with the upper part crowned in the manner shown by 




Fig. 28. GREAT TEMPLE AT THE ISLAND OF PHILAE. 

Fig. 29. The columns of the middle rows are higher 
than the rest, so that light may enter through the side- 




Fig. 29. MOULDING OF THE WALLS 

BETWEEN THE COLUMNS AT THE 

GREAT TEMPLE AT PHILAE. 



PROFILE OF THE SAME. 



openings between the higher roof of the central nave 
and the lower rows. 



112 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

To the many-pillared entrance-chamber succeeds an- 
other, which is always much narrower, but sometimes 
equally rich in columns (G). Then one or two vestibules 
without columns are reached, and then finally the inner- 
most sanctuary, which is only accessible by one entrance- 
door (H). This sanctuary is always small and totally 
dark, and very rarely contains the statue of a god. Ad- 
joining are several chambers, probably intended for the 
preservation of sacred vessels and as residences for the 
officiating priests. The whole of the hinder portion is 
surrounded by a continuous- wall. This arrangement of 




Fig. 30. SECTION OF THE TEMPLE OF CHENSU AT KARNAK. 

the larger temples may be considered as the prevalent 
type, and amongst others the Temple of Edfu (Fig. 22) 
offers a model of this plan. 

Fig. 31 affords another example. The section. Fig. 
30, which belongs to the same, serves to illustrate the 
proportionate height of the various parts of the interior 
of a temple of this description. 

It is there pointed out how, both through elevation 
of the floor and depression of the roof, the chambers de- 
crease regularly in height as they proceed from the 
front to the back. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



113 



29. The serious, solemn, and awe-inspiring effect 
which the general arrangement of the temple produces 
is maintained by the smaller details, while the slanting 
foim of the outer walls gives the temple an appearance 




Fig. 31. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF CHBNSU AT 
KARNAK. 



of solidity and isolation. On this account, and especially 
owing to its simple unbroken lines, the exterior, although 
monotonous and heavy, is still imposing. The chief pecu- 
liarity in the construction of these buildings is that they 




Fig. 32. BACK VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF PHILAE. 



produce the effect of being composed of an agglomera- 
tion of separate parts, which resemble one another, but 
become smaller and smaller towards the rear of the 
structure (Fig. 32). 

The walls of such a temple are covered with rows of 
sculptures painted in bright colors, and which are sep- 



114 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



115 



arated by bands, the lower rows on high walls being of 
greater breadth than the npper. The interior (Fig. 33) 
has a richer appearance, chiefly owing to the use of col- 
umns of a round cylindrical shape. These are, moreover, 
of the most varied form, and without exception represent 
objects drawn from the vegetable world. 





Fig. 34. PILLAR OF THE 
TEMPLE OF BDFU. 



Fig. 35. PILLAR OF THE 
PALACE LUXOR. 



30. The shaft is sometimes thick and sometimes slen- 
der, but never diminishing. Its height varies from 3 
to 414 times the diameter of the base, or, in some in- 
stances, even 5 to 5% times. This shaft is occasionally 
smooth, and only ornamented above and below, but it is 
generally marked off by horizontal lines into divisions, 
which are covered with sculptures and hieroglyphics 
(Fig. 34). It often consists of convex bands placed ver- 
tically, which resemble a bundle of thick reeds, and 



116 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



which in their turn are surrounded by several horizontal 
belts (Fig. 35). 

The shaft almost invariably rests on a circular plinth 
as a base, which projects more or less in different in- 
stances. 

31. The capitals of the columns display an immense 
variety. The most beautiful have a crater-like form, and 
appear like the projecting bell of a flower, with leaves 
standing out from the surface (Fig. 37). At the lower 



liiiii 





Fig. 36. ORNAMENT ON THE 

LOWER PART OF THE CAPITALS 

IN THE TEMPLE AT EDFU. 



Fig. 37. CAPITAL IN THE 
TEMPLE AT EDFU. 



part of the capital there frequently occurs an ornament 
of diminishing triangles, resembling the sheath from 
which the stalk of a plant springs (Fig. 36). The 
same ornament often occurs at the base of the shaft, and 
seems to a certain extent borrowed from the shape of 
the lower portion of the papyrus plant (Fig. 34). Other 
capitals imitate an unopened bud or seed-pod, as in 
Fig. 35. In both cases the lotus, which is the sacred 
plant, is typified. In other instances (though these may 
perhaps belong to a later period) the pillars are imita- 
tions of a palm tree, and have a smooth slender shaft, 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



117 



a neck-moulding of several rings, and then, without any 
intermediate architectural division, a capital formed of 
the graceful leaves of the palm (Fig. 38). In some tem- 
ples the pillars have, in lieu of capital, the face of a 
goddess, probably of Isis, with a drooping sacerdotal 
hood, and supporting a temple on the head (Fig. 39). 
This face is repeated on four sides of the circular shaft. 
32. In Egyptian architecture the structures are of 
stone. The coverings of the apertures as well as of the 
courts were effected by immense blocks of stone laid 
horizontally to which form of construction the wealth 




Fig. 38. CAPITAL IN THE 
TEMPLE AT EDFU. 




Fig. 39. CAPITAL IN THE 
TEMPLE AT DENDERAH. 



of the country in durable kinds of stone conduced. An 
admirable skill was called forth and developed through 
this employment of stone, which was for the most part 
of a kind laborious to work. This style of construction, 
operating as it did on the form of the structures, must 
have exercised an influence on Egyptian architecture 
generally, inasmuch as short, bulky, closely-ranged col- 
umns were requisite for the support of the ponderous 
blocks of stone which formed the architraves and roof- 
beams. 



118 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



The blocks of stone which form the architraves do not 
rest immediately on the capital, but on a quadrangular 
block of the breadth of the diameter of the upper part 
of the column. The columns and capitals are in general 




Fig. 40. PROFILE OF A 

COLOSSAL STATUE ON A 

PIER AT THE PALACE 

AT LUXOR. 



Fig. 41. FRONT VIEW OF 
COLOSSAL STATUE. 



not uniform, but recur in symmetrical succession. Their 
unity is preserved by the harmony of the lines for the 
horizontal divisions in the decorations of the shaft, as 
well as the upper and lower lines of the neck and the 
capital have always a uniform height. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



119 



33. Instead of columns siquare piers are not unfre- 
quently introduced in the tombs. In structural buildings 
they only occur in connection with colossal statues; in 
which case the pier supports the roof, and the statue, 
while connected with the pier at the back, has its head 
free, without supporting anything (Figs. 40 and 41). 

34. These human figures on the square piers are 
three or four times the size of life, but are perfectly 
uniform height, features, and attitude; they are in- 
variably in a standing posture, the head is decked with 
the lofty priestly tiara, while the only covering of the 




Fig. 42. MURAL FRIEZE-LIKE DECORATION FROM THE TEMPLE 
OF ESNEH, 



body is the Egyptian apron round the loins. In the right 
hand is the mystic token of the Nile-key, in the form of a 
cross, with a handle at the upper part; both arms are 
crossed over the breast or hang close by the side ; the feet 
are either parallel and close to one another, or with one 
slightly projecting; and the arched breast is rendered 
prominent by the upright position. 

35, To the multiplicity of form is added the varia- 
tion of bright coloring. The stone is never suffered to 
retain its natural tint either inside or outside the build- 



120 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




ntf. 43. MURAL DECORATION WITH HIEROGLYPHICS FROM THE 
GREAT TEMPLE AT PHILAB. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



121 



ing. Everywhere it is covered with sculptures and orna- 
ments, plastered wdth stucco, and painted in bright 
colors, which have lasted unchanged to the present day. 
These sculptures consist mostly of row^s of sitting or 
standing profile figures in similar or nearly similar posi- 
tions, either following each other as in a procession, or 
fronting each other in the attitude of worship or conse- 
cration. Groups of this sort are repeated symmetrically 




Fig. 44. ORNAMENT AT THE FOOT OF THE WALL FROM THE 
GR3AT TEMPLE AT PHILAB. 



on the walls on both sides, and have a direction towards, 
or at any rate a reference to, the center. They are 
generally of smaller dimensions in the interior, so that 
the walls or columns of the same chamber contain 
several rows of such representations. Between and over 
them are often found ornamented bands like friezes 
(Figs. 42 and 43), and at the bottom of the walls, as in 
the case of the columns, are introduced more decora- 
tions, representing lotus-plants (Fig. 44), 



122 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Architectural unity was not essentially disturbed by 
the confusion of the sculptures, although the Egyptians 
laid on their colors in bald and heavy tints, without a 
knowledge of blending, toning, or shading. 

36. Another element in Egyptian monuments which 
is worthy of study is the hieroglyphics (Fig. 43), which 
mean, literally, sacred sculptures, and that not only be- 
cause the condition and direction of architecture are 
thence to be learnt, but because also of the historical 
disclosures which they bring about. Modern research 
has succeeded in deciphering many of them, and also in 
gaining a satisfactory insight into the whole graphic 
system of the Egyptians. These hieroglyphic writings 
are of two kinds. The first is when single signs express 
entire ideas. In the other kind, which was much more 
frequently used, the signs express only single letters, or 
rather sounds, namely, always the initial letter with 
which the designated object began. This sort of hiero- 
glyphic is called the phonetic. 

Both kinds are intermingled in the inscriptions, but, 
in order that no ambiguity of interpretation may be 
possible, the signs which served as conceptions were not 
used as phonetic hieroglyphics. 

Not only natural objects were chosen as hieroglyphic 
signs, but geometrical figures, such as squares, circles, 
ovals and lines of various kinds, both simple and double, 
also often occur. Articles, pronouns and prepositions, 
as well as gender and number, were principally ex- 
pressed by these geometrical signs. No settled law was 
followed in the distribution of hieroglyphic writing. 
Whether it is to be read from right to left or vice versa, 
must be gathered from the direction in which the heads 
of the animals therein represented are turned. The 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



123 



vowels were omitted for the sake of brevity. Besides 
hieroglyphics, the Egyptians possessed a form of writ- 
ing which was employed by the priests, as also a current 
popular form; neither of these, however, need be taken 
into consideration here, since hieroglyphics were ap- 
plied to architecture. As regards the meaning of the 
inscriptions, the expectation of important disclosures 
and discoveries was disappointed, for they are generally 
only records of a religious ritual; in the case of the 
mummies they are always funeral prayers, and in the 




Pig. 45. SMALL TEMPLE IN THE ISLAND OF ELEPHANTINE. 



case of the monuments, eulogies and forms of consecra- 
tion of the prince by whose order they were constructed. 

87. Besides the temples the designs of which have 
already been described, another form of temple exists 
which are called Typhous. 

They consist of a simple house in the shape of an ob- 
long square, which has the entrance on the shorter side, 
and two or three consecutive chambers in the interior; 
whilst a colonnade surrounds all the four sides of the 
exterior (Fig. 45). At the corners, however, of this 



124 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 



colonnade, columns did not occur, but only simple piers 
of masonry Avithout a capital or entablature, so that the 
columns, which are thus shut in by the wall-work, do 
not form an uninterrupted colonnade. The space be- 
tween the columns on the narrow side is considerably 
smaller than that on the longer. There are in conse- 
quence only two columns between the masonry piers on 
the narrow side, whilst in the longer sides generally six, 
but sometimes as many as nine, columns are introduced. 




Fig. 46. FACADE OF THE LITTLE TEMPLE AT ELEPHANTINE. 



The whole temple stands on a perpendicular sub- 
structure, the outline of which is only broken in the 
middle of the smaller frontside by a flight of steps 
which leads up to the entrance into the building (Fig, 
46). The columns are besides throughout connected with 
a wall about ha4f the height of the shaft (as in the case 
of the polystyle entrance-halls), and a break in the con- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 1:':5 

tinuity of the same only occurs in the interval between 
the middle columns of the front of the edifice where a 
door, corresponding to the flight of steps, takes the place 
of this wall. 




Pig. 47. ENTRANCE-HALL OF THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAM- 
BOUL. 



These temples possess in every respect a purely 
Egyptian form. The external walls are not, however, 
slanting, but entirely perpendicular, as was necessitated 



126 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

by the mural connection of the pillars. ■ It is neverthe- 
less probable that this kind of temple is of later date, 
and they are only found as subsidiary-buildings in con- 
nection with the larger temples. 

38. The arrangement of the excavated structures 
corresponds with that of the temples. 




"' 40 

Fig. 48. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 



In most rock-temples a court, which is sometimes 
open and sometimes hewn out of the rock, or a covered 
vestibule forms the entrance, which opens into an en- 
trance-hall, with smaller chambers beyond, in which pil- 
lars or columns are introduced according to the exi- 
gencies of the case. The ground-floor (Fig. 48) and the 
section (Fig. 49) of the rock-temple at Ipsamboul il- 
lustrate this construction. In the latter figure is seen 
one of the four sitting colossal statues which are hewn 
out of the rock in front of the entrance, and which at- 
tain a height of 68I/2 feet. Fig. 47 gives a perspective 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



127 



view of the entrance-hall, in which are seen eight stand- 
ing colossal statues 33 feet high, supported by square 
piers. Fig. 50 gives a view of the entrance with the 
colossal statues. The larger rock-tombs have a similar 
arrangement: the vestibule is generally open to the air, 
then more or less halls and chambers, and finally narrow 
passages issuing from them, in which are placed the 
mummy-cases in well-like recesses. 




Pig.' 49. SECTION OF THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 



39. In essential particulars the palaces are adorned 
and arranged in the same way as the temples, with the 
exception that in their case the successive steps to the 
inner sanctuarium are not so clearly marked, and that 
the whole space with its entrance-courts and many-pil- 
lared halls is surrounded by a continuous wall. Fig, 
51 may perhaps serve to give an idea of the design of 
these palaces, which were executed with the utmost 
magnificence. 



128 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



An avenue of crio-sphinxes, 810 feet long, and in con- 
tinuation of the same a. road, which passed through four 
pylons erected at various intervals, leads in an oblique 
direction of the side entrance of the palace (Fig. 51X). 
On the contrary the main, entrance leads through a co- 
lossal pylon to a court (A) surrounded by colonnades, 
and which is 332 feet long by 269 feet broad, and in- 



^ '' ]m3^uiJ3j-iz:_A~ v^^fy- 




Fig. 50. ENTRANCE TO THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL 
WITH COLOSSAL STATUES IN FRONT. 



tersected at one side by a temple let in obliquely by 
Rameses III. ; while through a second pylon the mag- 
nificent pillared hall (B) is reached. This hall is 
170 feet long by 332 feet broad, and its roof is sup- 
ported in the middle by 12 columns 75 feet high, and 
bv 122 lesser columns, which are divided into seven 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



129 



Fig. 52 shows how the middle passage is made more 
imposing by this arrangement of elevating the columns 
in the middle, and how at the same time a means is con- 
trived of lighting the whole hall by the raised side- 
lights. A pillarless court (C) leads from this hall to a 
fourth pylon. Between the two stand two enormous 




Fig. 51. GROUND-PLAN OF THE PALACE AT KARNAK. 



obelisks. The following chamber (D) is equally an open 
chamber surrounded with statues in connection with 
piers, and in it also two obelisks were erected. A small- 
er open court leads thence through other pylons to 
chambers (E) and the sanctuary, surrounded by gal- 
leries and small columns ; while at the extreme end of 
the whole construction at the end of the open space be- 
yond the sanctuary is a small columnar temple (F). 



130 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 52. SECTION OF THE HALL OF THE PALACE OF KARNAK. 



WEST-ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 

40. We possess but scanty information regarding the 
art of the ancient races of Western Asia, and the re- 
mains of their monuments which have been preserved to 
our own times are few and insignificant. Through the 
excavations and researches of quite recent times, how- 
ever, an entirely new field has been opened out, which, 
although poor in architectural remains, properly so 
called, gives an interesting insight into the colossal con- 
structions of Babylon and Nineveh, owing to the numer- 
ous sculptured representations which have been discov- 
ered, and the deciphering of inscriptions written in the 
cuneiform character. 

BABYLONIAN ( CHALDEAN) AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



41. Babylonian buildings belong to an epoch pre- 
vious to the year 1400 b. c, after which period their 
subsequent development was checked by the growth of 
the more powerful kingdom of Assyria. The most con- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 131 

siderable architectural activity did not occur till the 
epoch of the monuments of Nebuchadnezzar, viz. about 
600 B. c. Both these Babylonian and Assyrian build- 
ings were constructed of baked or unbaked bricks, which 
were not calculated to be durable ; and this is the reason 
that we now possess no well-preserved monuments, but 
only rubbish-mounds of old building materials, which 
still, however, by their vast extent bear witness to the 
compass and greatness of the towns of Nineveh, in the 
neighborhood of Mosul, and of Babylon, near the modern 
Bagdad; at which places, according to the description 
of ancient Greek writers and quite recent investigation, 
structures must have been erected on a gigantic scale. 
The latest excavations of the Assyrian ruins of Nim- 
roud, Khorsabad, and Koyundschick, near Mosul, and 
which are for the most part ascribed to the old town of 
Nineveh, have led to the conclusion that the royal pal- 
aces, which united formed a kind of citadel, as well as 
the temples, were erected on artificially raised mounds or 
terraces. These terraces were not, however, constructed 
of embankments of earth, but of clay-bricks regularly 
dried in the sun, while natural elevations of the soil 
were taken advantage of to form these superstructural 
ramparts. In this way platforms of from 30 to 40 feet 
high were reared, on which the real building was subse- 
quently erected. In the buildings themselves unburnt 
bricks were in a great measure employed ; the walls con- 
sequently have a thickness of from 5 to 15 feet. They 
were reveted both on the inside and the out with ala- 
baster or limestone slabs, on which were engraved bas- 
reliefs and inscriptions in the cuneiform character (Fig. 
53). In the exterior, freestone was also employed for 
the lower parts of the coping. In the interior the walls 



132 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



consisted, above the line of the reveting slabs, which 
reached a height of from 9 to 12 feet, of richly-painted 
burnt or unburnt bricks, coated with stucco painted 
with various kinds of ornamentation. In some instances 
the entire walls are covered with painted stucco, with- 
out any facing of slabs. 



■m gf- T --'? ^ n 



><■< I « ^^ 



Fig. 53. CUNEIFORM WRITING. 

Another kind of mural casing, especially in external 
walls, was effected by driving conical terra-cotta studs 
about 3 1/2 inches long into the surface of the wall on 




Fig. 54. WALL-MOSAIC FROM THE TERRACE RUINS AT WORKHA. 



which convex mouldings had been formed. The pointed 
ends of these studs, which were of various colors, white, 
red, black, &c., were imbedded in clay which had been 
worked up with chaff, and the broader bases of the cones 
were made to form simple ornamental patterns of al- 
ternating colors on the exterior, as is shown in Fig. 54. 
42. The excavations at Nineveh, although of great 
importance for the attainment of a knowledge of the de- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



133 



sign of Assyrian buildings and the condition of art, 
have afforded no definite information regarding the ar- 
chitectural appearance of their structures as a mass. 
We are able to determine anything definite about one 
branch only, and that is the decorative. This v^^e are 
enabled to do by the many specimens which have been 




Fig. 55. PART OF A PAVEMENT-SLAB IN THE NORTH PALACE 
AT KOYUNDSCHICK. 



discovered. The most interesting point under this head 
is a certain accordance with the Grecian style of decora- 
tion, as is shown by Figs. 55 and 56. The latter of 
these represents an ornament which occurs very fre- 
quently on vessels and drapery, but which is also used 
in mural decorations, and by comparing it will be ob- 



134 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

served what a marked affinity exists between the Grecian 
and Assyrian patterns. Since, however, it is net the ob- 
ject of this volume to enter into any critical investiga- 
tions, but only to characterize and point out peculiarities 
of style, and only to admit artistic assertions when they 
are definitely allowed and established, it must be left 
an open question whether in these productions of Assy- 
ria and West-Asia generally, a germ is not visible of 
many forms which the Greeks, with their keen eye for 
the beautiful, subsequently borrowed, and expanded in 
accordance with their own more advanced rules of art; 




Fig. 56. GUILLOCHE ORNAMENT PAINTED ON BURNT CLAY, 
FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEH. 



or whether on the other hand it is not more probable 
that these forms had their original home in Greece, and 
from thence made their entrance into Assyria. The 
former of these views is supported by a comparison of 
Fig. 57 with a Grecian griffin and by the fact that these 
forms were features of Assyrian buildings before the 
Persian conquest, i. e. before the sixth century b. c. 

The accompanying drawings are only intended, in the 
total absence of all authentic records of the main archi- 
tectural principles, to give at least an insight into the 
style of ornamentation, as far as it is possible to convey 



EASY LESSORS IN ARCHITECTURE 135 

any idea from the few specimens which have as yet been 
discovered. 

43. One peculiarity is visible in all Assyrian build- 
ings, namely, that all the chambers are very narrow in 
proportion to their length. Nothing definite is known of 
the manner of constructing the roof, and views on this 
subject are much at variance. It may, however, be ac- 
cepted as established that the chambers were in general 




Fig. 57. SCULPTURED GRIFFIN FROM THE SCULPTURES IN THE 
RUINS OF NINEVEH. 



lighted by windows, which were inserted in the walls 
either high up or immediately under the roof, and that 
only large halls received their light from above through 
openings in the roof. The dwelling-houses which are 
represented in the sculptures, show at least traces of 
these windows let into the upper part of the walls. 

44. Colossal winged-bulls or lions with human heads 
form the main entrance into the halls, where battles, 
victories, triumphal entries, hunting scenes, and relig- 
ious ceremonies and processions were engraved on the 



136 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




|^4444i-«4-r-: ! ' ^^36 M 



Fig. 58. GROUND-PLAN OF THE NORTH-WEST PALACE OF NIM- 
ROUD. 




Fig. 59. WINGED-BULL FROM NIMROUD. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



137 



slabs of the casing, and painted in the most brilliant 
colors. Over these sculptures were painted other royal 
acts of the king surrounded by his eunuchs and warriors, 
and these representations were in their turn surrounded 
by an ornamental border, in which winged-bulls and 
monstrous beasts, as well as the sacred tree, principally 
figured (Fig. 60). 

At the top of the walls the roof was probably con- 
structed of wooden beams, divided into coffers by 
wainscoting, which were painted with flowers or ani- 
mals, or inlaid with ivory. Graceful borders and cor- 
ner-pieces surrounded each division. The brilliancy of 
the chambers was increased by employing rare woods 
and coatings of metals, especially gilding. 




SCULPTURED ORNAMENTAL BORDER FROM THE 
RUINS CF NINEVEH. 



All the buildings that have hitherto been discovered 
in Assyria have precisely the same character, so that in 
all probability the palaces and temples were united in 
one building: for the deeds of the king and nation are 
therein associated with the symbols of religion and the 
statues of the gods. It may be accepted as a general 
principle that it was not the temple, or the building 
destined for worship, which formed in Babylonian, As- 
syrian, and the Persian architecture which is to be de- 



138 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

scribed hereafter, the most important and distinctive 
element of the style, as it did in the case of other culti- 
vated races; but rather that it was the palace of their 
despots which enjoyed a paramount importance in the 
minds of those races. The building destined for worship 
was only to be distinguished by a pyramidal terrace- 
like substructure, whilst the structure of the temple 
itself was by no means in accordance with the com- 
manding position which raised it above the whole sur- 
rounding district : raised palaces were also erected on 
terrace-shaped substructures. One especially distinctive 
mark, however, of temple-terraces was this, that they 
were covered with glazed tiles in such a way that each 
platform had a distinct color. 

45. No trace of the column is to be found in Assy- 
rian ruins. That columns were not, however, unknown 
to the Assyrians is proved by two which are represented 
in the older sculptures of Nineveh, as supporting a kind 
of pavilion. 

The total absence of shafts and capitals in Assyrian 
ruins, as well as the insignificant breadth of the cham- 
bers in proportion to the length leads to the conclusion 
that independent columns were not used as main sup- 
ports. On the supposition of a wooden roof to the 
chambers this might, it is true, have been supported 
by wooden posts, but such a presumption is difficult to 
reconcile with the otherwise massive character of the 
structure. 

46. One of the Babylonian buildings, the Temple of 
Baal or Belus, which is known in the Bible under the 
name of the Tower of Babel, was a pyramidal structure 
consisting of eight stories, and was 600 feet broad at 
each side of the base, and also 600 feet high. In the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



139 



top story was a large temple. A staircase winding 
round the eight stories led to the temple and also to the 
interior of the building. 

The appearance of one of these terraced pyramidal 
structures is shown by a Relief from Koyundschick 
(Fig. 61), which unfortunately has not been preserved 
complete. It there is represented as rising on a mound- 
shaped substructure, on which two paths are marked 
out, and in which an entrance-gate is introduced, which 
reminds one in miniature of the gigantic Egyptian 
temple-gates or pylons. On this substructure rests a 




Fig. 61. TERRACE-PYRAMID. RELIEF FROM KOYUNDSCHICK. 



terrace supported by buttresses, and on that again a 
second with an entrance-gate, and then a third with a 
quite narrow entrance, and lastly a fourth terrace, 
whose termination the delineation leaves doubtful. 

47. The ' other monuments, known to us, date from 
the later times of the Chaldeo-Babylonian kingdom, the 
most flourishing period of which was during the reign 
of Nebuchadnezzar, about 600 b. c. The celebrated hang- 
ing gardens of Semiramis belong to this epoch. Prob- 



140 



EAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



ably these were terraces disposed in stages one above the 
other, so that each formed a garden-plateau. 

No clue is left amidst the numerous masses of ruins, 
by which the style of these structures can be determined. 



W 



Fig. 62. PILLAR OF A TABLE IN 
AN ASSYRIAN RELIEF. 



Fig. 



Still, however, the bas-reliefs which have brought to 
light present much that is worthy of note. Figs. 62, 63, 
and 64, amongst others, bring out prominently the sim- 
ilarity of many details with Grecian art. Fig. 62, rep- 



O 
•H 



Fig. 64. 




Fig. 65. CAPITALS AND BASE OF 
A COLUMN IN A BAS-RELIEF 
FROM KOYUNDSCHICK. 



resenting the pillar of a table, bears a strong resemblance 
to an Ionic capital as displayed in Asia Minor. Other 
reliefs portray small facades of temples with capitals 
like Figs. 63 and 64, and of these Fig. 63 shows an af- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



141 



finity, although it be a remote one, with the Corinthian 
capital. A base is shown in Fig. 65. In the fragment 
of a relief from Koyundschick columns occur which rest 
on a cushion-shaped base on a lion's back, just as is the 
case in the doorways of Gothic churches (Fig. 66). 

It may finally be mentioned as a remarkable peculiar- 
ity that, totally contrary to the usual belief that the 
semicircular arch was applied by the Etruscans and sub- 
sequently by the Romans, arches of this description have 




Fig. 



PILLAR ON A LION'S BACK. 



been found represented in the reliefs of the ruins of 
Nimroud, and that it thence also appears that the point- 
ed arch was thus early employed both for niches and 
'doors. This may be gathered not only from reliefs in 
which such constructions occur, but also from still exist- 
ing arches of both descriptions applied to gateways and 
vaulted drains, which have been discovered, although the 
dimensions of the same are but small. Although the 
conclusion cannot positively be deduced that broader 
spaces were also vaulted over, still it thence appears far 
from improbable that chambers may have had arched 
roofs. 



142 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



PHOENICIAN AND ISRAELITISH ARCHITECTURE. 

48. Whilst at best heaps of ruins alone bear witness 
to the existence of Babylonian buildings, the fabrics of 
the Phoenicians and of the Jews have disappeared with- 
out leaving any traces. With a view, however, of render- 
ing the present work as complete as possible, mention 
must be made of those of their considerable buildings of 
which we possess a knowledge; so that, as far as may 
be, a conception may be formed of the architecture of 
those remarkable nations, which have exercised so im- 
portant an influence on European civilization. Of the 
Phoenicians we only know in general terms that their 
cities were splendid and magnificent, as also were their 
colonies of Carthage and Gades, of which equally no 
remains exist ; and that wood and metals, especially gold, 
were employed in covering the internal walls, and that 
brass was used for columns. 

49. Something at least of architecture amongst the 
Jews may be gathered from the Old Testament: and it 
may have had much affinity with that of the Phoenicians. 
As early, however, as the Exodus from the land of 
Egypt, 1500 B. c, a peculiar architectural development 
may be traced, which is exemplified by the description 
of the Tabernacle, which was a movable temple- 
structure shaped like a tent. Since the people were 
continually wandering in the v/ilderness, this Tabernacle 
can have had no permanently structural character, but 
was composed of wooden walls, covered with gold 
plates. Hangings formed the roof, and divided off the 
Holy Place, and the richly adorned Ark of the Cove- 
nant, The Court of the Tabernacle was surrounded with 
hangings and brazen pillars. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 143 

50. Solomon's Temple was built at Jerusalem, 1000 
B. c, after the pattern of the Tabernacle. This temple 
was destroyed 420 years later, at the time of the con- 
quest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and subsequent- 
ly, on the return from captivity under Cyrus and 
Darius, was rebuilt by the Jews from about 536 to 
515 B. c, in probably the same style as the former 
temple, 

Herod the Great had this temple pulled down, and 
in B. c. 20 caused a new and magnificent temple to be 
erected, which in a. d. 73, at the time.of the destruction 
of Jerusalem by Titus, experienced the same fate as 
the former one. Herod's building was, it is true, in 
accordance with the main plan of the former temple, 
but was executed in the then prevailing Grecian style. 

51. Regarding Solomon's Temple we know that it 
was of small size, that the material was a combination 
of stone and wood, and that the fabric rested on strong 
foundation walls of blocks of stone. The building had 
two outer courts, the exterior one for the people, and 
the interior, which lay somewhat higher, for the priests. 
In the court were dwelling-places for the Levites and 
door-keepers. The actual temple consisted of the outer 
hall, or Holy Place, and of the Holy of Holies. On 
both sides of the building, and also at the back, was a 
side building, which was a third lower than the main 
building, and contained chambers disposed in three 
stories one over the other. The walls were of stone, but 
the interior was entirely covered with lining of cedar- 
wood. Beams of cedar formed the roof, and beams of 
cypress the floor. All this woodwork was adorned with 
carving at the doors and windows; the devices repre- 
sented palms, cherubim, and coloquints, and were over- 



144 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

laid with gold. In the Holy Place stood the altar of 
burnt incense, the table for shewbread, and five golden 
seven-branched candlesticks. At the upper part were 
let in lattice-shaped windows, which probably answered 
the purpose of carrying off the smoke of the incense. 
A wall of cedar and hangings divided this place from 
the Holy of Holies, in which stood the wooden Ark of 
the Covenant, overlaid with gold both inside and out- 
side. At the side of it were two immense cherubim, 
carved from wild olive wood, and also overlaid with 
gold. No reliable details can be given of the exterior. 
The actual temple probably rose higher than the courts 
and side buildings. No columns surrounded the temple. 
At the entrance of the courts, however, stood the two 
celebrated pillars, Jachin, i. e., firm, and Boaz, strong; 
made of cast brass, and which probably possessed a 
symbolical meaning. 

52. Owing to the utter want of all representations 
nothing definite can be adduced regarding the style of 
this temple or of Jewish architecture generally. The 
sole relic of the temple which has endured till our days, 
consists of part of a foundation constructed of large 
blocks of stone in the Roman fashion, and it may con- 
sequently be attributed to the last temple, which was 
executed in the time of the supremacy of Rome, al- 
though, judging by comparison with similar stone 
foundations in Assyrian ruins, the date might be set 
down as a much earlier one. 

That no employment of Egyptian models occurred, 
as many have believed, may be determined by the 
heterogeneous nature of the materials employed; and 
indeed the whole design of the temple gives no evidence 
of any direct connection with Egyptian architecture. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 145 

Egyptian architecture has essentially stone as its 
basis; and the heavy beams of stone required many 
supports of stone, i. e., columns. On the other hand, 
the extensive beams of wood rendered columns unneces- 
sary amongst the Jews. Then again, the universal em- 
ployment of glittering metal and costly wood leads to 
the conclusion that amongst the Jews there was no 
prevalent sesthetic taste for noble forms, as was the 
case amongst the Egyptians, but that a luxurious love 
of ostentatious display obtained amongst them, which 
was more in accordance with Phoenician than Egyptian 
art. 

The Jewish tombs, which still exist around Jerusa- 
lem, are either sepulchers hewn in the rock with a 
chamber in front, or independent structures hewn out 
of the rock, as has been seen to have been already cus- 
tomary amongst the primitive Indian nations. The 
bodies were disposed in these sepulchers in the same 
way as one sees in the catacombs at Rome, either rest- 
ing immediately on shelves of the rock in the surround- 
ing walls, or stowed away in trough-like recesses, or in 
holes excavated in the depth of the rock of the size of 
the human contour. The sepulchers have a kind of 
facade, or merely a framework and setting for the 
stone which blocked up the entrance. Both in these 
caves and in the independent structures details bor- 
rowed from or akin to Grecian and Roman architecture 
are perceptible: for instance, Ionic columns and Doric 
triglyphs ; it may therefore be taken for granted that 
they belong to the later period of the Jewish kingdom. 
The sarcophagi also, which have been discovered in the 
sepulchers, show a Roman or Grecian influence, as 
well as that of the established Phoenician style. 



146 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



MEDIAN AND PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. 

53. At the overthrow of the Babylonian kingdom, 
at the end of the eighth century b. c, its culture and 
art passed into the hands of the Medes, and from them 
in turn to the Persians, when that people freed them 
from Median supremacy in the sixth century, b. c. : it 
is therefore easily to be accounted for, if considerable 
conformity exists between Persian and Babylonian 
monuments, both as regards terrace-built structures and 
various other details. 

Religion was not favorable to constructive art 
amongst the Persians. They worshipped Ormuzd as god 
of light and good, under the symbol of fire> as opposed 
to Ahriman, the god of darkness, and promoter of evil. 
They had consequently no images, and they had also no 
temples, because sacrifices were conducted in the open 
air: the essential element was therefore wanting for the 
rise and development of constructive art. 

54. In later times, however, when Egypt and the 
Greek colonies of Asia JNIinor were subjected to the Per- 
sians, w'e know that the Persian kings employed Egyp- 
tian and Grecian artists in building their palaces. The 
monuments which have been preserved to us show, how- 
ever, a peculiar character in spite of every imitation of 
foreign architecture. Many of these structures belong, 
it is true, to the fourth century, the period of the Sas- 
sanides, but considerable remains have been discovered 
dating from the times of the successors of Cyrus. 

In the neighborhood of Murghab are those of Pasar- 
gadae, a town founded by Cyrus, where was the burying- 
place of the Persian kings. At this place is the tomb of 
Cyrus. Seven stages form a pyramidal building 40 feet 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



147 



hig'h, 44 feet long, and 40 feet broad at the base, and 
constructed of enormous blocks of white marble. On 
the topmost surface is a little house with a gable-shaped 
roof of marble, in which formerly stood the golden cof- 
fin, surrounded by all kinds of costly vessels. 




Fig. 67. VIEW OF THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS. 



55. The most important monuments of Persian art, 
besides the tombs of the later Persian kings, are the 
magnificent ruins of Chehil Minar (the forty pillars). 
They are remains of the gTeat palaces of Persepolis, 
which were overthrown by Alexander the Great, and 
rise in terraces at the foot of ]\Iount Rachmed; they are 
constructed of the blackish-grey marble of the mountain 
itself, and are 1,400 feet long by 900 feet broad. Ac- 
cording to the modern deciphering of the inscriptions, 



148 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



these palaces were built partly by Xerxes, and partly 
by Darius. A magnificent double staircase runs along 
the walls of the terrace (Fig. 67), and leads to a portal, 
on the entrance piers of which are hewn gigantic, fanci- 
ful animal forms, resembling the Assyrian; beyond 



I , Jn,_„ . •!! 


•* ''8 *li 

Ii_. 




... 



i: 



% 

liCZJIC 



3I[ 



3C= 



Fig. 68. 



ELEVATION OF PLATFORM 
AT PASARGADAE. 




Fig. 69. CAPITAL AND 

ENTABLATURE FROM THE 

ROCK-TOMB OF DARIUS. 



which, colonnades and another similar staircase conduct 
to the second terrace, on which are found the remains 
of large polystyle halls. Ruins of other considerable 
buildings are to be seen close by, but lying rather high- 
er; these were richly adorned with bas-reliefs. On the 
third terrace are situated other buildings of various de- 
scriptions, as also colonnades, the walls of which are 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 149 

adorned with sculpture, and contain smaller chambers, 
which possibly constituted the habitable rooms of the 
palace. The original intention of other large ruins close 
at hand cannot be conjectured. The whole is surround- 
ed by a wall which abuts on the rocks which lie behind. 

56. The workmanship of the white marble columns, 
and of the large squared stones which are joined with- 
out cement, shows a cultivated skill (Fig. 68). The 
walls are covered with sculptures and inscriptions in the 
Persian cuneiform character; those which have already 
been deciphered betoken the forms of consecration and 
titles of Darius and Xerxes. The columns in the ruins 
of Persepolis are circular and slender, and have capitals 
and bases. The capital generally consists of two half- 
horses or bulls, whose fore feet overlap the border of 
the shaft, and which are placed back to back (Fig. 69). 
Probably a beam was inserted between their necks, 
which served as a support for the real transverse roof- 
beams laid upon it. Other capitals are more compact 
(Figs. 70 and 71), where from the lower part, which is 
in the shape of a globular . vessfel, rises a slender cup, 
supporting a lofty member with double volutes or scrolls 
on the four sides, which correspond with those of the 
Grecian Ionic capitals (Fig. 72), but which are intro- 
duced not horizontally but perpendicularly. The base 
consists of fillets and a leaf-covered torus resting on a 
circular plinth. 

The columns have fine flutings and stand tolerably 
far apart from each other, from six to seven times the 
diameter, and consequently have a very light appear- 
ance. The entablature, of which nothing has been pre- 
served, was probably of wood. To judge by the exist- 
ing entablature in the tombs, a certain resemblance must 



150 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 





Fig. 71. CAPITAL FROM THE 
RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS. 




Fig. 70. CAPITAL (RESTORED), 
FROM THE RUINS OF PER- 
SEPOLIS. 



Fig. 72. VOLUTE OF THE 
PERSIAN COLUMN. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 151 

have existed in this feature to the Grecian Ionic style. 
On an architrave consisting of three projecting stages, 
an upper beam rested on small blocks similar to the 
Ionic dentils, on which was a broad frieze with sculp- 
ture, such as a row of bulls or dogs. But in the more 
ornate and slender structure of the palaces at Persepolis, 
the entablatures were doubtless more elegant than those 
which were constructed for the tombs. 

The doors have a square border and a cornice similar 
to the Egyptian entablature, consisting of a cyiiia with 
a facia over an astragal. With this exception, nothing 
at all is found that refers to or coincides with Egyptian 
taste, although we know that after the subjugation of 
Egypt Cambyses caused architects to be summoned to 
erect the royal palaces. It must, however, be understood 
that by this term only artisans are meant, to whom was 
entrusted the task of carrying out the works in the 
usual native style. 

The development of a peculiar architectural style 
amongst the Persians is to be accepted as prob- 
able, but a style based upon foreign models intro- 
duced by them. Remains of other Persian monu- 
ments present traces of terrace-like designs with im- 
mense flights of steps, which are also, as we have seen, 
characteristic of Babylonian architecture. Though the 
Persians had adopted, beside these terraces, many other 
characteristics of Assyrian architecture, still the Persian 
style is essentially to be distinguished by its light porti- 
coes instead of the heavy massive walls, and by the 
simpler and more regular ground-plan of its buildings ; 
but, above all, by the peculiar formation of its columns. 



152 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



CHINESE ARCHITECTUEE. 

57. At the conclusion of that portion of this work 
which treats of the architectural styles of the ancient 
races of Asia, a short reference must be made to Chinese 
architecture. 

Indian art made its entrance into China with the wor- 
ship of Buddha. But still diversities, corresponding to 
the different nationalities, were gradually introduced. 
Instead of the Indian dagoba there appears a tower-like 
construction of many stories, growing smaller towards 
the top and with the stages distinctly marked, and 
covered with gaj^-colored curved roofs to which bells 
were attached (Fig. 73). 

These tower-like edifices, which were, for the most 
part, octagonal, were constructed, like the temples, for 
the purpose of religious worship. 

The details of Chinese architecture show much affin- 
ity with late Indian. For example, in the upper part 
of the column, curved brackets were employed instead 
of a capital for the support of the architrave. 

Chinese structures have nothing durable about them, 
for perishable wood forms an essential element in their 
construction, and they were more remarkable for their 
elegance and slender proportions than for their vast 
dimensions. The roofs are especially characteristic, the 
mcst striking peculiarity being that they are always 
curved, and have figures on them in high relief, as 
well as at the corners, from which hang bells, and that 
they are decorated with all kinds of embellishments, 
such as gilt dragons, and other fantastic carvings (Figs. 
74, 75, and 76). 



EASY LESSONS IN xiRCHITECTURE 



153 





Fig. 74. CHINESE PAVILION, 




Fig. 73. PORCELAIN 
TOWER AT NANKIN, 



Fig. 75. 
PART OF CHINESE PAVILION. 



The introduction of bright colors and of glittering 
porcelain and glazed tiles, forms a peculiar feature in 
Chinese architecture. 

The architecture of the Chinese temples does not dif- 



154 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



fer from that of the other buildings. They are, for the 
most part, small, and consist of one chamber surrounded 
by porticoes (Fig. 77). The palaces are constructed in 
the same way as the temples, and are more remarkable 
for their size than their beauty. 




Fig. 76. 



ENTRANCE-GATE TO THE TEMPLE OF CONFUCIUS AT 
SHANGHAI. 



The Chinese do not possess the art of arching large 
spaces, consequently numerous columns are introduced 
for the support of the ceilings and roofs; these are of 
wood, and sometimes carved and some times plain, but 
invariably painted. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 155 

It is essential to the complete character of a Chinese 
villa that its neighborhood be adorned with a supple- 
ment of artificial rocks and woodland scenery, with 
water-courses with bridges, and with fountains, grottos, 
and fantastic rockeries. 



Pig. 77. PAVILION OP THE GREAT TEMPLE AT CANTON. 

Chinese architecture is as invariable as everything 
else in the Celestial Empire, and Chinese art, generally, 
is the same as it was many hundreds of years ago. 



156 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 

ROMAN CHRISTIAN BASILICAS AND CIRCULAR 
ARCHITECTURE. 

78. Christianity, as well as the influx of the Ger- 
manic races, could not fail to exercise an essential in« 
fluence in the transformation of the Roman state, and 
this influence was naturally extended to Roman art. 
The same effect was wrought in the East by the Arabs, 
and by the dissemination of the creed of Mahomet. That 
branch of art which belongs to totally different periods 
and races after the propagation of the two religions has 
been denominated the Romanesque, in order to express 
in one word the contrast to the calm repose and noble 
simplicity of classical art. This denomination does not, 
however, express the new artistic development in all its 
phases, as has been shown in Section 161, inasmuch as 
the new growth was sjTichronous with the decadence of 
art and the ingression of barbarism; and it was only 
some centuries later that a more untrammelled move- 
ment and a more poetic flight were destined to spring 
into life, whilst it was not before the IMiddle Ages that 
the new art reached its full development. Consequently 
this title — "Romanesque Art" — must here be applied 
only to a synoptical review of a whole group of different 
styles, and in contradiction to pre-Christian and 
Modern. 

79. The new elements mentioned in the preceding 
paragraph have been entitled "Early Christian Art," 
inasmuch as they were called into existence by the new 
religious requirements of the nations of antiquity that 
had embraced Christianity. As, however, these new re- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 157 

ligious requirements demanded other architectural con- 
ditions than those which already existed, a new style of 
building was naturally necessitated. The deterioration 
of art was, however, so complete, that the new require- 
ments could not be supplied in an independent and or- 
ganic manner, but recourse was had to novel and pecu- 
liar combinations of old artistic forms; consequently an 
ensemble arose, constituting the Roman Early Christian 
Style, which differed essentially from the styles already 
in existence. The northern races, which streamed into 
Italy, namely, the Ostrogoths and Lombards, were able 
to render no assistance in the work of development: 
on the contrary, being rude and uncultivated in com- 
parison with Reman civilization, they swallowed it up 
and rendered the Roman Christian Style the common 
property, not only of Italians, but also of Franks and 
Anglo-Saxons. 

80, Through the division of the empire into the 
East and West, a. d. 395, and through the foundation of 
the new capital, Constantinople, on the site of the old 
Byzantium, a "Bj^zantine" art grew up side by side 
with the Roman Christian: this will be subsequently 
treated in a separate chapter. 

It was during the sixth century, especially, that Early 
Christian art assumed a distinctively Byzantine form 
in the Eastern portion of the empire : and this form was 
the more independent because the nationality of the peo- 
ple was not effaced as it was in Italy by the influence 
of northern nations. 

Since the Christians, forming no distinct people, and 
constituting no entire nationality, possessed no well- 
defined art of their own, and were obliged to employ 
the architects, builders, and sculptors whom they found 



158 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

amongst the Greeks and Romans f^r the erection and 
adornment of their buildings, it may easily be supposed 
that the first Christian buildings did not differ ma- 
terially from the heathen buildings which were already 
in existence. Consequently the title "Early Christian 
Style" must be understood to apply only to churches as 
converted basilicas, seeing that in the construction of 
dwelling-houses the ancient methods were retained for 
a considerable period. Any alteration in that respect 
could only take place after protracted and gradual 
transformation of the manners and customs of the Ro- 
mans, and as the new religion acquired a greater influ- 
ence over architecture. Whilst Roman art in the West 
passed over into the hands of the barbarians, it settled 
into a new independent system at Bazantium. 

Roman Early Christian Architecture found its chief 
application in Roman Christian basilicas and in circular 
churches. 

The continuance of this description of architectural 
style lasted till the end of the ninth century — that is, till 
the time when the ancient elements were forced to give 
way before independent new ones, which sprang up as 
described in a subsequent chapter. Classical forms, 
however, maintained their ground in Italy, and especial- 
ly at Rome. 

81. When the Christians were first allowed to build 
churches for themselves, they thought that the best 
model for the buildings, in which the Christian congre- 
gations were to meet together for worship, was to be 
found in the basilicas, the very name of which was re- 
tained as suitable, seeing that it means kingly hall. It 
is probable that the first Christian basilicas were very 
like their model; with the exception, however, that the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 159 

central part of the Roman basilica, which was generally 
open, was in the Early Christian basilicas covered with 
a roof. But ere long, about the end of the fourth 
century, a gradual transformation in the original de- 
sign was perceptible. A form of basilica was developed 
from the genius of Christianity, which was retained un- 
altered for succeeding centuries. Although the main 
outline remained the same, different proportions were 
assumed : and it was particularly the architecture of the 
interior that gave its peculiar appearance to the Chris- 
tian basilica. Owing to the fact of the nave being roofed 
over, an essential modification took place compared with 
the Roman basilicas, which were not vaulted, but formed 
a kind of open court surrounded by colonnades; where- 
as the new buildings assumed the form of an enclosed 
nave, of which the colonnades became aisles, and termi- 
nated by a recess called the tribuna, which was less iso- 
lated than in the ancient basilicas. The typical form of 
the Christian basilica is as follows : — 

82. The interior was divided by two rows of columns 
into three aisles, of which the central one (a Fig. 78) 
was broader and higher than the side-aisles (see Fig. 
79) 6 for men and c for women, and was terminated at 
the opposite end to the entrance by the apse. The 
columns were sometimes surmounted by the old archi- 
trave, the weight being supported by flat relieving 
arches; but they were generally connected by semi- 
circular arches, which supported a wall pierced with 
small narrow windows; these, like those in the walls of 
the side-aisles, had a semicircular head. Sometimes a 
transept was introduced in front of the apse, the elonga- 
tion of which in later times gave rise to the cross-like 
form of churches. This transept v^as separated from 



160 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



the main aisle by semicircular arches, and the ground 
form of the v'hole building assumed the form of the let- 
ter T. 





Fig. 78. GROUND-PLAN OF THE 
CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN 
CLEMENTE AT ROME. 



Fig. 79. CHRISTIAN BASILICA 
OF SAN PAOLO FUORE 
DELLE MURA AT ROME. 



Large basilicas sometimes have as many as five aisles 
(see Fig. 78) — namely, a main-aisle in the middle, and 
two lower aisles on each side (Fig. 79). 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 161 

■ The roofing of the basilicas consisted of beams with 
a flat panelling, which was richly gilt in earlier times, 
or the rafters of the timberworks were left without a 
casing, and were ornamented with colored embellish- 
ments (Fig. 80). 

83. At the east end in the transept in front of the 
apse stood the altar (Fig. 81, e) ; this was frequently 
covered by a baldachino supported on four pillars. Be- 




Fig. 80. SECTION AND INTERIOR VIEW OF THE FIVE-AISLED 
BASILICA OF S. PIETRO AT ROME, BEFORE ITS RESTORATION. 



hind, in the tribuna itself, was the seat of the bishop in 
the middle raised on steps, the cathedra (f), and in a 
semicircle on both sides, the seats of the higher eccle- 
siastics (g). In front of the altar, at the end of the 
middle-aisle, was a long space surrounded by barriers of 
marble (/;) for the lower clergy, who formed the choir, 
whence the place itself received the name of the choir. 



162 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



A marble pulpit (Ambo) (i), richly adorned for the 
most part with mosaic, was placed on each side of the 
choir ; from one of these the Gospel was read, and from 
the other the Epistle. In some instances only one such 
ambo was erected, and it then had two divisions, from 
the higher of which the Gospel was read, while the 




Fig. 81. PROFILE AND VIEW FROM BENEATH OF THE RAFTERS 

IN THE CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN MINIATO 

AT FLORENCE. 



Epistle was read from the lower. The arrangement of 
the choir, with the two pulpits, is shown by the per- 
spective view of the interior of the described basilica 
of San Clemente (Fig. 83). 

The whole of the space which is shut off round the 
altar is designated the Sanctuary, and is raised by one 
or two steps above the level of the church. At both 



EASY LESSONS IN AKCHITECTURE 



163 



sides of it, at the end of the side-aisles, an especial place 
was occasionally shut off — namely, the Senatorium (k), 
for men of rank; and the other, the Matroneum (1), 
for women of rank. 




Fig. 82. 



GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN 
CLEMENTE AT ROME. 



84. Adjoining the entrance there was frequently a 
narrow space, shut off by a barrier drawn breadthways 
across the building, designed as a locality for such peni- 
tents as had regained the_right of access to the Sanct- 



164 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

iiary. This space was called the Narthex, or scourge. 
A portico (m) in front of the church, and other porti- 




Fig. 83. INTERIOR VIEW OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN BASILICA 
OF SAN CLEMENTE AT ROME. 



Goes which surrounded an outer court (w) (Atrium, 
Paradise, Vestibule, Pronaos) were designated by the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 165 

same name, and were intended for such penitents as 
were entirely out of the pale of the Catholic commun- 
ity. In the middle of this Pronaos was the Cantharus, 
or bowl for washing the hands, and intended as a 
symbolic type of the inner purification, which subse- 
quently ensued from the sprinkling of the holy water. 

85. One remarkable peculiarity of basilicas is that 
a subterranean chapel, or crypt, for the reception of 
the bones of the saint to whom the church was dedi- 
cated was constructed under the principal altar, which 
stood before the tribune. The word ''principal" altar 
has been used advisedly, because in process of time 
side-altars were introduced in various positions. Some- 
times this crypt is a mere vault, but more generally 
it is an architecturally arranged structure with pil- 
lars to support the vaulting; a sort of subterranean 
hallj which was probably suggested by the chapels of 
the catacombs at Eome. When these multifarious sub- 
terranean passages, which had originally been excavated 
for the purpose of obtaining stone, were used by the 
persecuted Christians as places for refuge and burial, 
they made alterations which converted them into crypts, 
resembling chapels, to serve as a meeting-place for the 
congregation. Subsequently, when the Christian re- 
ligion was recognized at Kome, larger churches were 
built over these graves of the martyrs, or over the 
entrances to the catacombs; and probably these sepul- 
chral chapels suggested the idea of the construction 
of a crypt in other situations also, destined to fulfil 
the same offices as the structure from which it was 
copied. 

86. The form of the Christian basilica, as it has just 
been described, owed its origin more to customs and 



166 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

requirements which were necessitated by religious wor- 
ship, than to artistic deliberation. Still, though on 
the one hand, an already vitiated, and on the other 
a still embryo art were instrumental in their construc- 
tion, these basilicas produced on the whole a sublime 
and peaceful effect, which is principally to be as- 
cribed to the beautiful simplicity of Christian archi- 
tecture that pervades their principal features. The 
simple ground-plan of later Christian churches is more 
clearly and intelligibly traceable in the Basilica than 
it is in more elaborate structures. 

The most characteristic feature in the basilica are 
the three, or sometimes five, parallel aisles, the length 
of each of which is easily recognizable, owing to the 
nave being higher than the side aisles. 

87. The ornamentation of the basilica corresponded 
with its architectural form. It did not consist of plas- 
tic sculpture, but of paintings and mosaics, which were 
introduced on the side walls of the nave, as well as on 
the so-called triumphal arch: but they were princi- 
pally employed in the apse, which formed the termina- 
tion of the church and the end of the whole perspective 
for the eye of a person entering the building (see Fig. 
80). These apse mosaics generally represent large, de- 
tached figures, turned towards the spectator, wrought 
on a ground-work of blue or gold, with bold and sim- 
ple drapery, and produce an imposing effect. 

88. Whilst the general impression is therefore sig- 
nificant, the appreciation of detail is entirely wanting 
in these early Christian edifices. The columns, which 
are generally of the Corinthian order, were for the 
most part taken from older buildings of the heathen 
period, and differed in material and workmanship; 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 167 

sometimes even those of dissimilar dimensions were 
placed next each other. The intercolumination, and 
even the breadth of the side aisle are often unequal, 
the side walls without ornament, while the entablature 
consists merely of the projecting ends of the beams; 
and generally speaking altogether a fine architectural 
feeling is wanting; but the low standard of an un^es- 
thetic age is still more forcibly expressed by the mean- 
ness of the exterior of the basilicas with their bald 
walls and windows and doors devoid of moulding. The 
latter were generally covered with a horizontal stone 
with a plain arch-head to relieve the weight. Sometimes 
there was in front a portal resting on two columns and 
covered with a cross-arched vaulting, or a portico was 
introduced along the whole length of the facade. In 
spite of the unassuming simplicity of the external con- 
struction it is commendable that it seems to have been 
caused, at least in the main arrangement of its pro- 
portions, by a wish to render the characteristic expres- 
sion of the interior, for the lower aisles are connected 
with the more lofty central portion by a slanting en- 
tablature corresponding to the roof. The material was 
for the most part brick, which was sometimes left quite 
plain, whereby the construction was emphasized, and at 
others received a marble coating, as for instance at 
the church of San Miniato at Florence. 

The form of the Christian basilica which has been 
described was retained for several centuries in Italy, 
and especially at Rome. So true did the architects 
remain to the oldest models, that the buildings of the 
twelfth century are hardly to be distinguished from 
those which have been erected since the fourth. 

89. The most complete specimen of the arrange- 



168 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



ment of an ancient basilica is presented by that of San 
Clemente at Kome (Fig. 83). One of the most notable 
instances of a five-aisled basilica is that of S. Paolo, out- 
ide the walls of Rome, which was burnt 
down and subsequently rebuilt in accord- 
ance with the old plan. 

During the later period of the construc- 
tion of basilicas, an isolated tower, of a 
simple rectangular shape, and with no 
taper, was often erected near the front 
facade of the building. Amidst the con- 
flicting views which have been arrived at 
concerning the origin and object of this 
new construction, which first occurred in 
connection with basilicas, the supposition 

f^WB^T^ that it was originally intended to collect 
sflfiiief the congregation for service, may probably 
__J»«E^-l i^g correct; and the designation bell-tower, 
as answering to the Italian expression 
Campanile, may be suitably employed 
to describe it. 

90. In the period under consideration, 
chapels, convents, and other buildings, 
such as triclinia, or large halls for the 
reception of pilgrims were constructed in 
a style resembling that of the basilica. 

There was, however, another usual form 
of church which was synchronous with 
the basilica and which must now be 
described. In this class of structure the principal 
and often the only constituent part of the building 
consisted in a space, which was generally round or 
octangular, covered with a dome; while sometimes 
a circular passage or other parts of the building abutted 



Fig. 84. Tower of 
Early Christian Ba- 
silica of S. Maria in 
Cosmedin at Rome. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 169 

on it (Figs. 85 and 86). But when the entire building 
does not consist of the one dome-covered space, it always 
constitutes the central portion, and the other parts abut 
on it. 




Fig. 85. SECTION OF THE CHURCH OF S. CONSTANTIA AT 
ROME. 

91. The simplest descriptions of this kind of build- 
ing are the baptisteries (Figs. 86 a, h, c, d), for which 




I* • • 

Fig. 86. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF S. CONSTANTIA AT 
ROME. 

the ancient Therms furnished models. They generally 
have a circular or octangular ground-plan, a main 
space covered with a round or polygonal dome, and a 



170 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



circular passage separated therefrom by pillars in the 
same way that the side aisles are separated from the 
main aisle in basilicas (see Figs. 85 and 86). Some- 
times they were without this passage, and only had gal- 
leries running round the interior like boxes in a the- 
atre. These buildings were generally erected in the vi- 
cinity of cathedrals. 

Other churches were constructed in the West in a 
similar simple way, but only in isolated instances; or 
some times in such a manner that several side domes, 
resting on pillars were grouped round the main dome: 
in which case the one which contained the altar always 
stood out prominently from the rest. 




Pig. 87. GROUND-PLANS OF BAPTISTERIES. 



92. This circular architecture only occurs in isolated 
cases in early Roman Christian architecture; on the 
other hand in the Eastern empire it became the preva- 
lent form of church from the sixth, if not from the 
fifth century, and must be considered as the principal 
type of that architectural style, which will be con- 
sidered under the name of the Byzantine in the suc- 
ceeding subdivision. 

93. In the ornamentation of basilicas, as in all works 
of early Christian art, and particularly in the case of 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 171 

tombs, symbolic representations form a characteristic 
feature. It will not be inappropriate, with a view to a 
due understanding of the same, to consider some of the 
most usual and most important of these symbols or 
emblems. 

Christ is naturally the principal subject of these sym- 
bols; then come the Christian virtues and attributes. 

The earliest and most universal is the sign of the 
Cross, to which the monogram of Christ was subse- 
quently added. The fish was, moreover, an emblem of 
Christ, because the letters for the Greek word for a 
fish, taken as initials, give the words, "Jesus Christ, 
the Son of God, Saviour." 

A very favorite symbol is the lamb, whether as typi- 
cal of Christ, with the addition of a Cross, or of the 
Apostles, or of all Christians, as the flock of the Good 
Shepherd. The Dove is the symbol of the Holy Ghost 
and of mildness and gentleness. The hart is an em- 
blem of Christian longing, in consequence of the well- 
known verse in the Psalms: "Like as the hart de- 
sireth the water-brook, so longeth my soul for Thee, 
God;" the peacock, which was already an emblem of 
immortality for the heathens, retained that symbolic 
meaning among Christians; the phoenix was a very 
natural emblem of the Eesurrection ; and the cock of 
Christian watchfulness. 

In the earliest times, when the Christians celebrated 
their worship in the depths of the catacombs, the angel, 
the lion, the bull, and the eagle, were already emble- 
matic of the four Evangelists. A leaf is a very com- 
mon symbol: the olive-leaf as sign of peace, some- 
times with, and sometimes without, a dove; the palm- 
leaf, as reward of victory for martyrs and the departed. 



172 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

because they had triumphed over death : the crown and 
the garland had the same signification; the vine-leaf 
was in early times the most favorite emblem; the an- 
chor and lyre were symbols of Christian confidence 
and joy; the horse, a ship under sail, and footsteps 
were probably typical of the journey of life and the 
accomplishment of the Christian struggle ; the Rock was 
emblematic of our Blessed Saviour and of the character 
of firmness ; and the pitcher was a symbol of the agape 
or of Holy Baptism. 

94. Besides these shorter symbols, other more elab- 
orate ones are drawn partly from the Old and New 
Testaments, and partly from imagination. 

Their artistic value is insignificant, and on a par 
with heathen productions of the later Roman period. 
Of Old Testament symbols the following are the most 
common: As a memorial of man's sinfulness, the Fall, 
with Adam and Eve at both sides of a tree round which 
is coiled the serpent: as typical of obedience, the 
sacrifices of Cain, Abel, and Abraham: as incentive 
to the hope of help in danger, Noah in the Ark on the 
approach of the dove, frequent representations of the 
prophet Daniel in the den of lions, and of the Three 
Children in the fiery furnace, and of the passage of the 
Red Sea : as proof of heavenly nourishment and 
strengthening, Moses striking water from the rock or 
receiving the Tables of the Law from the hands of 
the Lord: as symbolic of the Resurrection, the ascen- 
sion of Elijah. An especial favorite was the story of 
Jonah, which combined several of these references, and 
representations of his sleeping in the gourd-booth, of 
his being swallowed by the whale and cast up again, 
were very frequent. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 173 

95. The most important events in the life of Christ 
afford materials for emblems drawn from the New Tes- 
tament: these only occur in works of a later period — 
such are representations of the Passion — of the cruci- 
fixion, the crowning with thorns, and the derision. Some 
of the miracles of the Gospel narrative were greatly 
in favor, as: the raising of Lazarus, the miraculous 
feeding of the people, the healing of the woman with 
the issue of blood, of the paralytic man, of the blind 
man: then more historic subjects, as the conversa- 
tion with the woman of Samaria, the entry of Christ 
into Jerusalem, the washing of feet, Christ before Pi- 
late, Peter's denial and leading away into prison, the 
delivery of the keys to Peter, etc. 

96. The favorite and most usual representation of 
Christ is as the Good Shepherd, generally in a shep- 
herd 's dress, bearing the lost sheep on His neck or cares- 
sing it: sometimes merely sitting amongst the sheep 
with a shepherd's staff or a flute. Besides these forms 
Christ is often represented without relation to a par- 
ticular incident, generally teaching, surrounded by His 
disciples or the twelve Apostles, either sitting or stand- 
ing on a mountain, from which issue four springs as 
symbols of the rivers of Paradise and of the Evan- 
gelists. 

Christ is also represented as Orpheus, in a short gar- 
ment, covered with the Phrygian cap, with the lyre in 
His hands and playing on it, sitting under the trees, 
whilst lions and camels and birds in the branches listen 
to Him. 

God the Father is generally represented simply by a 
hand stretched forth from the clouds. 

Whilst these representations are, it is true, well cal- 



174 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

culated to stir religious thoughts in the beholder, still 
their artistic worth must be described as insignificant, 
with the exception of a few pictures of Christ in the 
apses, which portray considerable grandeur and dig- 
nity. 



BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 

97. After the separation of the Roman Empire into 
the Eastern and Western divisions (395 A. D.), a new 
order of things arose in the Eastern portion, and es- 
pecially in its new capital of Constantinople. On the 
site of the ancient Byzantium, and wdth an infusion 
of oriental elements, the Byzantine style was conse- 
quently developed. The sixth century, which witnessed 
the reign of Justinian, was the most important for the 
formation of this new style. Soon afterwards the in- 
roads of the Arabs and the conquest of whole provinces 
by that race began to exercise an influence on the 
form of Byzantine architecture. On the other hand 
Byzantine architecture had a reflex action on Arabian, 
as will be shown in the succeeding subdivision. The 
Crusades in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the 
supremacy of the Franks in the Greek empire which 
arose from those religious movements, tended to ex- 
tend the scope of Byzantine architecture over other 
countries also. But when the old line of emperors re- 
turned they were unable to withstand the victorious 
inroads of the Turkish Sultan, and the Western Empire 
became the prey of the resistless Turks in the year 1453. 

It has been usual hitherto to call Art in the west 
during the early period of its development in the Mid- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 175 

die Ages Byzantine, but, although the influence of By- 
zantine forms is to be traced, it was far from stamping 
its impress on the western styles. The architecture of 
the Byzantine empire, properly so-called, has exclus- 
ively to be dealt with here, and the extraneous influence 
which it exercised will be considered in the fourth di- 
vision of the second book under the head of Later Ko- 
manesque architecture. Moreover, owing to various 
causes, buildings were erected in other countries in the 
Byzantine style but these, although they do not belong 
to the national architecture of the countries in question, 
must be classified with the buildings built in the prev- 
alent style, 

98. Two epochs must be distinguished in Byzantine 
architecture. The first, which begins with Constantine 
and ends with Justinian in the middle of the sixth cen- 
tury, is that of the formation of the new style, till the 
completion of a settled system : domical construction is 
its essential feature. 

The second and longer period exhibits a rigid imita- 
tion of the settled system, with an addition of oriental 
forms, and is finally, at least in some localities, sub- 
jected to the influence of "Western Art. 

99. The essential element in the formation of the 
Byzantine style is the vault, which did not . assume a 
free and independent character till it reached the East- 
em Roman Empire; for hitherto in the west it had 
always been subordinate and unsuitable to the Grffico- 
Boman columnar construction. Massive piers and wide 
arches with a dome rising over them in the main space, 
and vaulted side-spaces in connection with it: these 
are the prominent characteristic elements of the archi- 
tectural design. Columns, if they were employed at all, 



176 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

were made to be subordinate to the main form of the 
vault construction, and were introduced between the 
large piers and the arches. 

The construction of the vault influenced the whole 
structure of the building. The principle of vaulting 
that had already been introduced by the Romans, in 
which the walls no longer served as supports, but as 
enclosures, was carried to its utmost limits in the new 
Byzantine style: for the pressure and thrust of the 
vault, which is held together by the counterpoise on the 
opposite side of the dome and strengthened by but- 
tresses, is distributed only on individual points. 

The Eoman decorative principle was, however, aban- 
doned, inasmuch as a change took place in the indi- 
vidual details and in the manner of their application. 
Thus, for instance, projecting cornices, if not entirely 
given up, were only employed to crown the building, 
and its component parts, particularly intermediate cor- 
nices, became tame and flat in their outline. As only 
a subordinate position was allotted to the columnar 
architecture, the usual proportions of the columns and 
their capitals were abandoned and altered after an ar- 
bitrary fashion. 

During the early period various ground-plans were 
followed in the construction of churches. Sometimes 
they were octagonal, after the manner of the West- 
Roman central style, at others they formed oblongs, 
approaching a square, with a dome over the center. 

100. The Byzantine style of this first period reached 
its highest example and splendor in the church of 
Sta. Sophia at Constantinople. After this church, which 
was originally built by Constantino, had been burnt 
to the ground, it was rebuilt, with the utmost care, and 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



177 



at great expense, by Justinian. It remained a peer- 
less mode] for all later buildings of this description, 
and was celebrated far and wide, not only for its size, 
but for the span of its vaults and the splendor of its 
decorations. A short description of this building will 




Fig. 88. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA, AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 



therefore explain the main characteristics which were 
subsequently universally foilowed, for though the pro- 
portions in other buildings of a similar nature were 
diminished, yet they were always constructed in ac- 



178 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

cordance with the same plan, which will be rendered 
intelligible by Figs. 88, 91 and 92. 

The external ground-plan of the building (Fig. 88) 
approaches a square, being 252 by 230 feet, in the 
center of which four massive piers, connected by semi- 
circular arches, form another square, and by means 
of triangular vaultings (pendentives) which span these 
arches, support a flat dome. 



Fig. 89. DOME-SYSTEM OF THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 



Right and left on both sides of this central square, 
as viewed from the entrance, stand four pillars, which 
are connected by arches, and support the women's gal- 
lery. On each of the open sides of the dome-covered 
square there abuts a semi-circle with semi-domes of 
somewhat inferior height to the main dome. (Fig. 91.) 
These semi-domes are penetrated on each side by three 
smaller vaults (Fig. 89) ; the middle one of the three is 
a barrel or cylindrical vault (Fig. 90) and on the 
entrance-side forms the main-entrance, and opposite, on 
the further side, it forms the apse: whilst the two re- 
maining vaults on each side assume the form of immense 
niches with semi-domes, resting on two rows of columns 
one above the other. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



179 




180 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

In this way the whole inner space forms an oval nave, 
which is terminated towards the west by a vault with 
a square end, and towards the east by the apse : whilst 
in its height it appears as an entire whole, owing to 
the vaults of various descriptions and altitudes that 
radiate from the central dome. 

Round this lofty central space, except on the side 
of the altar, are ranged side-aisles of two stories, which 
do not however assume the form of a continuous aisle. 




Fig. 91. BARREL VAULT. 

but are divided into three divisions on each of the long 
sides, in the second story of Avhich are the women's 
galleries, so that the whole does not appear an open 
space, but rather an oval hall with side-halls and arches. 
These two-storied aisles are shown in Fig. 88 by hatch- 
ings, and the nave in . the middle, having been left 
plain, is brought out more prominently. 

The embellishment was rich to the highest degree: 
the walls and piers, and even the floor, were inlaid 
with colored stones, and the vaults were enriched with 
mosaics on a ground of gold, and the columns were 
constructed of various marbles of the most precious 
kind. The nave was lighted from above by windows 
pierced in Dhe main and in the semi-domes. 

Besides the Narthex, there was a second vestibule: 
both extended the whole breadth of th-e building. In 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUBE 



ISl 




Fig. 92. INTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OP STA. SOPHIA AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 



front of it was an entrance court surrounded by a colon- 
nade, which was entered through an arch resting on 
four pillars. 

101. The most striking point of difference in the 
impression conveyed by the interior of this Byzantine 
church and the interiors of Roman-Christian basilicas 



182 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



is that while the latter carry the eye longitudinally to 
their apsidal termination, the former arrests it by the 
prominence of the central portion of the building; that 
is to say, by a stupendous dome constructed on a 
quadrangular substructure, in which all other details 
culminate. But notwithstanding this system of cen- 
tralization, and the majestic appearance of the dome, 
the perspective effect of length is not entirely aban- 
doned, as it was in the case of octangular and circular 
buildings; which constructions were, however, rarely 
employed for large churches. 





m(tJl^ft||Prte[lL^ 



^^^JtM^® 



Fig. 93. EXTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 

Although the impression conveyed by this church is 
not so pure and simple as that which the basilicas pro- 
duce, still its outlines are magnificent and imposing. 
The exterior displayed a novel divergency from the 
normal standard. Whilst hitherto the antique form of 
the roof had been preserved, it was now replaced by 
a totally different one: inasmuch as the vaulting, at 
least of the domes, was visible from the outside without 
any screen, or the only covering it had was one of 
polished metal. (Fig. 93.) 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



183 



According to this model it became the normal rule in 
buildings in the Byzantine style for the domes to spring 
from a square, and to introduce around it, except on 
the altar side, galleries for the women and to allow the 
vaulting to be visible externally. 




^wmm^ 



Fig. 94. GROX.ND-PLAN 

OF THE CHURCH OF ST. 

MARK AT VENICE. 



Fig. 95. GROUND-PLAN OF THE 
CHURCH OF THE THEOTOKOS, 
AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 



102. Contemporaneously with the church of Sta. 
Sophia, another form arose, which being subsequently 
frequently repeated, constitutes a second period of the 
Byzantine style, and forms the most eminent charac- 
teristic of Byzantine churches, namely, the ground-plan 
of the Greek cross with a vault-system consisting of 
five domes. The cross is formed by the intersection 
of the nave and transept and a dome is raised on piers 



184 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



at the point of intersection, whilst over the extremity 
of each arm of the cross is a similar dome, only with- 
out windows. (Fig. 94.) The arms of the cross are 
often covered by a barrel-vault instead of a dome. 
(Figs. 95 and 96.) On the front side of the church 
there is generally a narthex, or a front-hall of consid- 
erable dimensions covered by vaultings. 




Fig. 



SECTION OF THE CHURCH AT THE THEOTOKOS 
AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 



But the ground-plan of a square with the central 
dome resting on piers or columns, and with four smaller 
domes at the corners, is more common and more charac- 
teristic of the Byzantine style. The women's galleries 



EAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



185 



were then introduced between the principal piers, open- 
ing on to the central space. 

As a rule, two small side apses were constructed on 
each side of- the main apse: They were not, however, 
visible from the outside. 




Fig. 97. FACADE OF THE CHURCH OF ST. TAXIARCHOS AT 
CYTHNUS. 



103. The principal difference between these build- 
ings and those of the first period consists in the treat- 
ment of the dome, which no longer, as in the church of 
Sta. Sophia, assumes the shape of a flat vault, but that 
of a hemisphere, whereas externally it often appears 



186 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



as a flat vault resting on a perpendicular substructure. 
Wliilst internally the windows pierce the vaulting, ex- 
ternally they are let into the vertical wall. (Fig. 97.) 
In this arrangement may be recognized the origin of the 
drum which subsequently became common in the west. 
In buildings of this period there are found, as has 
already been remarked, several domes in one building; 
sometimes three, but more often five; the four smaller 
ones either forming a cross with the central dome, or 
being introduced at the four corners. 




mm 






Fig. 



CHURCH OF ST. NICODEMUS AT ATHENS. 



104. The vaultings are always without covering ex- 
ternally. Only in instances, where regard for climate 
or western influence have been brought to bear on their 
construction, are they covered with tiles or slabs of 
stone : and even then the shape of the various vaultings, 
whether domes, or barrel-vaults, or cross-vaults, remains 
almost always undisguised. The rooflng of the church, 
beside the vaultings, consists either of plain slopes, or 
the outside walls are raised so high that they are only 
overtopped by the principal dome, whilst they screen 
the smaller ones, and so terminate the facade by a hor- 
izontal line. (Fig. 98.) The barrel- vaults of the arms 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ■ 187 

of the cross were afterwards converted, into circular 
pediments, and finally all the upper portions of the 
building were terminated by rounded lines only. 

The exterior always remained extremely simple, and 
the oriental love of magnificence was in preference de- 
veloped internally. Sometimes the uniformity of the 
facade was broken by alternate rows of tiles and stones, 
or of stones of various colors. The windows were in- 
troduced in the women's galleries, and were narrow, and 
covered by round arches, or a double window was 
formed by the interposition of a pillar. 




Fig. 99. FROM THE CHURCH Fig. 100. FROM THE CHURCH 
OF SAN VITALB AT RAVENNA. OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. 



105. The walls of the interior were cased with costly 
marble, and in later times were ornamented with mo- 
saics, representing either figures or arabesques, com- 
posed of very small precious stones or glass dice, and 
subsequently with frescoes : both the latter kinds of or- 
namentation were affected on a dark-blue, but after- 
wards always on gold ground. Owing to this extensive 



188 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



employment of mosaics, a traditional style, both for de- 
sign and coloring, was formed for these figurative rep- 
resentations, which may be called the mosaic style: it 
was, as has been shown, employed in the Roman ba- 
silicas, and had great influence over the plastic art of 
later times. In these mosaics the arabesques are of 
slender, intertwining patterns, whilst the representations 
of figures are stiff and conventional. 





Fig. 101. FROM THE CHURCH Fig. 102. FROM MARCIAN'S 
OF THE THEOTOKOS AT COLUMN AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 



106. The essential characteristic of the Byzantine 
style is therefore, in short, that the vaulting, and es- 
pecially the dome, constitutes the main feature, to which 
all else is subordinate. With the Romans vaulting was 
associated with the Grecian column, and formed an 
isolated feature in their constructions, but in the By- 
zantine style it became an independent system ; although 
its artistic productions may never have surpassed medi- 
ocrity as regards detail. It was a consequence of this 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 189 

system that the architrave of the Grecian orders, which 
is so essentially antagonistic to the vault construction, 
was entirely abandoned. The predominance of the dome 
and the vault was only a natural consequence of the 
development which this system was left free to assume 
by the abandonment of the outer roof and the associa- 
tion with the doine of the semicircle in place of the 
gable, at the termination of the outer walls. 

107. Besides the main design, many of the details 
of the Byzantine style present novelties and peculiari- 




Plg. 103. FROM THE CHURCH OF ST. MARK AT VENICE. 

ties, in which the wish for diversity and picturesque 
effect point indubitably to an oriental influence. The 
servile imitation of the Grecian column is abandoned; 
new forms of capitals arise, which suit the vaulted 
arches better, and evince more supporting power than 
the Greco-Roman would have done. This result is pro- 
duced by the introduction of a kind of support placed 
under the arch at the top of the capital. (Figs. 99 and 



190 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

100.) This may be accounted as the most remarkable 
and most peculiar of the details of form in the Byzan- 
tine style. The capitals are of various kinds ; gener- 
ally with pointed acanthus leaves, and resembling the 
Grecian Corinthian column (see Figs. 101 and 102) : 
others are like the capitals of the Composite order, as, 
for instance, Figs. 103 and 104. Capitals like that de- 




Fig. 104. FROM THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 



picted in Fig. 100, short and cubical in shape, with 
trapeziform sides and incised foliage or other orna- 
mentation, are peculiar to the Byzantine style. 

In other respects the purely architectural details are 
very deficient, and are generally replaced by mosaic 
ornaments. A love of splendor and varied richness of 
color predominates over the taste for the artistic work- 
ing of architectonic details. 

Byzantine ornaments are in general to be distin- 
guished from those of the Grecian and Roman styles, 
to the former of which, as well as to Asiatic sources, 
they owe their origin, by a rougher and more unpleasing 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 191 

treatment, and by the leaves in the sculptures being 
deeply indented, sharp-pointed, and hollowed out in the 
middle. The running foliage is generally poor and un- 
interrupted. 

108. The forms which have been described are in 
use at the present day in the construction of churches 
in Greek Catholic countries ;• namely, a square or oblong 
ground-plan with a dome visible from the exterior ris- 
ing on four piers over the central space, and having 
cylindrical vaults over the sides and small domes over 
the corners, and as a rule three apses. The narthex, 
also, is not wanting, and it sometimes has a portico in 
front of it. 

Such are the regularly recurring elements of most 
Greek churches, though here and there some modifica- 
tions occur, as, for instance, the separation of the sanc- 
tuary from the main-space by traverse-walls. 

109. No remains exist of Byzantine palaces, and we 
only know by the description of Byzantine writers that 
they were richly adorned with costly materials, such 
as precious stones and mosaics. On the other hand, 
Byzantine buildings of another kind have escaped the 
ravages of time, namely, the cisterns, which were con- 
structed principally in Constantinople and Alexandria 
as early" as the time of Constantine. They are large 
reservoirs, covered with little domes or cross- vaultings, 
resting on columns. Sometimes several shafts were 
placed one over another. In connection with these cis- 
terns were large aqueducts, after the manner of the 
Roman. 

110. Byzantine Art gained a footing also in the 
West. Italy especially, even after the division of the 
empires, and after the separation of the churches, still 



192 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

maintained relations and intercourse with the East. 
Many Byzantine elements were communicated to the 
rest of the West by trade, and in later times by the 
Crusades directly, whilst indirectly they passed thither 
through Italy; and here and there buildings in the 
Byzantine style are to be found, either pure or modified. 

In this respect Ravenna, on the east coast of Italy, 
is most remarkable, which for a long time was under 
Greek rule, and was therefore subjected at the same 
time to the influence of both Rome and Constantinople. 
The church of San Vitale deserves especial mention, 
which was built at very nearly the same time as the 
church of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople. It forms an 
octagon with a dome resting on eight piers; the spaces 
between these piers form niches, covered by semi-domes, 
with two rows of arcades one above another, cutting 
into the main domes; as in the church of Sta. Sophia. 
(Compare Fig 91.) 

In the north-eastern parts of Europe and in Asiatic 
countries the Byzantine style spread simultaneously 
with the Greek church, and exercised a great influence 
over the formation of native Art, as, for instance, in 
Armenia, and Georgia, and in the Russian empire, in 
which countries the working of Byzantine style merits a" 
special consideration; the influence that Byzantine Art 
exercised over Arabian architecture will be considered 
in that portion of the work to which it properly be- 
longs. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



193 



Byzantine Architecture in Armenia and Georgia. 



111. Cliurcli architecture in these countries must be 
viewed as an offshoot of the Byzantine style. The By- 
zantine typical plan is sometimes found combined with 
the basilica; while the dome in the center of the build- 
ing, the barrel-vaults of the side portion, the construc- 
tion of the apses and sometimes the narthex are all 
accepted. 




Fig. 105. EAST FACADE 
OF THE CHURCH. 



Fig. 106. GROUND-PLAN OF 
A CHURCH AT 
VAGHARSCHABAD. 



The churches of Armenia and Georgia, which were 
built in the tenth and eleventh centuries, show a devia- 
tion from this form. Their plan is a parallelogram, 
from which the apse, if it is not concealed in the thick- 
ness of the wall, and the gateways project polygonally. 
Sometimes, instead of these projections, there are tri- 
angular recesses in the walls as shown in Figs. 105 and 



194 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



106. The roofs of the aisles slope from the wall of the 
nave as in Western buildings. 

The doors generally have circular or horseshoe arches 
over them, although in later times they were pointed or 
pyriform. The windows, which are as narrow as loop- 
holes, have sometimes straight and sometimes circular 
heads, and are often surrounded by ornaments, which 
do not lay claim to any importance, and which, in the 
more important churches are freely introduced on the 
archivolts, cornices, and doors. Intertwined lines as 
shown in Fig. 107, enriched with foliage, are of very 
frequent occurrence. 



Fig. 107. 





PART OF AN ORNAMENTED 
WINDOW CASING. 



Fig. 108. CAPITAL OP 
A COLUMN. 



112. The exterior walls are, generally, as in many 
Byzantine churches, relieved by half columns, connected 
by arches, which have the appearance of marking oil 
the wall into several subdivisions. Fig. 108 shows the 
capital of one of these columns, which seldom occur in 
any other part of the building. The cornices consist 
of full and massive mouldings. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 195 

As regards the exterior, it must be remarked, that 
where the basilica construction has been retained, a sort 
of transept extends right and left from the dome, the 
gables of which resemble those of the western and east- 
ern facades. 

113. The central dome rests either on four inde- 
pendent piers; or, when the central form predominates, 
on the walls which slope inwards, so that totally discon- 
nected spaces are formed at the corners, which, so far 
as concerns the impression conveyed by the interior, 
might as well not exist; in fact, internally no endeavor 
is made to produce any perspective effect. A polygonal 
form also occurs, with a number of niche-like project- 
ing buildings corresponding to the number of the sides. 

The main dome is not spherical but conical in shape, 
and vaulted with layers of stone projecting one over the 
other. 



RUSSO-BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 

114. Russian architecture may properly be called a 
deterioration of the Byzantine style, though it was modi- 
fied by many influences, and deviated considerably from 
it. It has maintained its peculiarities and errors of 
taste for centuries from the time of its formation from 
the Byzantine style down to the present day. 

The Slavonic races that dwelt in the broad expanses 
between the Adriatic and Black Seas and the Baltic, 
which were intersected by forests, morasses, and steppes, 
had received the first germs of their civilization by 
their intercourse -with the Byzantine provinces; and 
Byzantine architecture found acceptance, owing to the 



196 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



building of numerous churches by order of Vladimir the 
Great (981-1015), in whose reign a general profession 
of Christianity took place in Russia, whilst that sov- 
ereign had continual intercourse with Constantinople. 




Fig. 109. CATHEDRAL OF THE ASSUMPTION AT MOSCOW. 



The nature, however, of the country and of the peo- 
ple was net conducive to a national development of the 
elements which had been implanted. A further obstacle 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 197 

was presented by the inroads of Mongols from Asia, 
and their establishment in the country under the rule 
of Ghengis in 1237. After their ascendency had been 
overthrown by Ivan III. (1462-1505), and the relations 
between Russia and Constantinople had ceased with the 
eanture of the latter city by the Turks, that emperor 
procured artists of all kinds from the West, and par- 
ticularly from Italy, for the erection of the numerous 
buildings which he caused to be constructed; amongst 
others was the celebrated architect, Fioravanti, of Bo- 
logna, in the year 1475, who was summoned to build 
the still existing church of the Assumption at Moscow, 
exactly after the model of the Cathedral of Vladimir, 
which was the oldest metropolitan church of Russia, and 
therefore it is only in some few details and in the 
improvement of the proportions that the better taste 
of the Italian architect is perceptible. 

115. It is only at the end of the fifteenth century 
that Russian architecture begins to exhibit a divergency 
from the Byzantine ; for then forms crop up that denote 
a Tartar origin, as the bulb-shaped dome, &c. 

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Russian 
architecture assumed a highly peculiar form,- to which 
the church of Vassili Blanskenoy, at Moscow, with its 
fantastic shapes, greatly contributed (Fig. 110). In 
this building the merit both of art and style had fallen 
even lower than before. 

116. The first churches were built at Tchemigow, 
Kief, and Novogorod, during the first half of the elev- 
enth century, after the model of the church of St. 
Sophia, by Byzantine architects and workmen. A de- 
viation, that had already been introduced into the 
Byzantine style in the Eastern empire became the in- 



198 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




iig llu CATHLDRVL CHLRCH OF VASSILI BLANSKENOY 
AT MOSCOW. 



dispensable type for all large churches of this descrip- 
tion up till the present day, namely, the construction 
of five domes in such a way that the four lesser domes 
are introduced over the four comer spaces of the square 
that forms the base. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 199 

117. Russian architecture displays its most peculiar 
feature in the shape and number of the domes; the dia- 
meter of which often exceeds that of the drum that 
forms the substructure. These domes no longer have a 
regular spherical shape, but run up into a point at the 
top, while the sides have swelling curves in the shape 
of a pear or bulb, and some are even broader and 
flatter than those objects. The turriform substructure 
becomes still higher and slenderer with these bulb-like 
domes. 

The number of the domes is increased in buildings 
which have pretensions to magnificence, in such a way 
that either all the domes form part of a central system, 
the lesser domes being grouped round the central one, 
and diminishing in height as they recede from the center, 
and arranged on parallel or diagonal lines which form 
squares, or several square centralized systems of domes 
are introduced contiguous to one another. At the top 
of the dome is a gilt cross, which often springs from 
a half-moon, and from it gilt chains hang down and 
are fastened to the dome. 

The impression of this mass of domes is heightened 
and rendered more grotesque by the application of 
colors. The roofs which are covered with sheet-metal 
are painted yellow, red, or white, whilst the domes them- 
selves are green or blue, studded with gold stars, or 
entirely gilt or silvered: the central ones being more 
richly decorated than the outside ones. 

118. The exterior surface of the walls is broken by 
slightly projecting pilasters, but in other respects it is 
tasteless. The windows are small and covered by a 
circular arch or by two connected together; the ends 
of which have no supports. They are often introduced 



200 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



in two rows one above another, which seems a meaning- 
less imitation of the Byzantine double row of windows 
which was necessitated by the women's galleries. 

One characteristic peculiarity in the construction of 
Russian churches consists in the hip-roof, in which the 
main dome at the top and the side domes at the corners, 
being raised on drums, terminate in a very unartistic 
manner (Fig. 111). 




Fig. 111. HIP-ROOF WITH 
SUPERINCUMBENT DOMES. 



Fig. 112. BELL-TOWER. 



119. The domes are supported in the interior by 
lofty piers, either circular or angular. The plastic por- 
tion of architecture is entirely wanting inasmuch as no 
sculpture exists *in Russian buildings. The principal 
divisions are only embellished by painting and gild- 
ing. The chief ornament of the interior consists of the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 201 

iconostasis, which is a high screen reaching as far as 
the vaulting, and shutting off the altar from the con- 
gregation. On this iconostasis are painted pictures of 
saints in three or four horizontal compartments, ac- 
cording to an arrangement which is fixed and sanctioned 
by ritualistic use. The figures are painted on a gold 
ground, with gold and silver drapery, and always in 
accordance with one normal type, and the whole screen 
is scantily lighted by lamps. In other respects the in- 
terior is generally dark and gloomy. 

120. Bell-towers (Fig. 112) are generally detached 
from the church, and it is only in quite modern times 
that they have been connected with them. They gener- 
ally consist of several diminishing stories, either circu- 
lar or octagonal in shape, which usually, but not always, 
have a square base. They are frequently crowned by an 
obelisk, terminating in a bulb-shaped dome, like a gi- 
gantic steeple-knob. 

121. Even in the later Eussian style, which retains 
few reminiscences of the Byzantine, the circular arch is 
prevalent ; and is introduced for the roofing of the inner 
spaces, in the form of a barrel-vault, without the cross- 
vaulting being used. It is only in external details that 
the keel-arch is met with, which is of such frequent oc- 
currence in the Mahometan buildings in Persia and 
India, and which consists of two vaultings uniting in 
one point. (See Mahometan Architecture, Fig. 118.) 

122. In the reign of Peter the Great, at the be- 
ginning of the eighteenth century, the vitiated" taste of 
the West found its way to Russia, and by encroaching 
on the native fantastic architecture, if not entirely sup- 
planting it, it followed the same course as it did in other 
countries; and it is only quite lately that an imperial 



202 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

edict has been promulgated to retain the old Byzantine 
style as much as possible in Russian churches. Rus- 
sian architecture can only produce an advantageous 
effect for the £esthetically cultivated eye when cities 
are viewed as an entirety, for then the great variety 
of the numerous variegated towers and domes, although 
quaint and wanting in repose, has a rich and. imposing 
effect. 



MAHOMETAN ARCHITECTURE. 
Arabian Architecture in General. 

123. During the course of the seventh century, A. D., 
the religion of Islam, which had been founded by Ma- 
homet, united in a short space of time the nomad tribes 
of the Arabs, who had hitherto lived in wild freedom, 
into one mighty people, which spread this new religion 
from the Atlantic to the Ganges. 

The want of buildings for the new worship neces- 
sarily called into existence the architectural and artis- 
tic elements amongst these united races. But since the 
roving life which they had led was little calculated to 
foster art, or effect an independent civilization, they 
were obliged to appropriate and use for their own pur- 
poses the existing forms of art in the various countries 
over which they disseminated the creed of Mahomet. 
These forms, however, were transmogrified in the hands 
of the conquerors according to their own genius and 
taste, so that the Arabian style was gradually developed 
out of the forms which were found ready to hand, and 
which belonged for the most part to Early Christian art 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 203 

of the later Roman period, together with an admixture 
of Asiatic elements. This style, however, received a 
different impress in the various countries in which it 
was developed: thus, for instance, in Egypt it was 
blended with the rigid conformity of the Egyptian, and 
in India with the voluptuousness of the Indian. 

Arabian architecture was developed on the basis of 
the Early Christian, that is to say, on that of the basili- 
cas of the Byzantine style. 

Its formation and peculiarity, apart from the in- 
fluence of the fantastic genius and lively imagination 
of the Arabs, was necessarily in part determined by 
the fact that every kind of figurative representation, 
whether of man or animal, is forbidden by the Mahome- 
tan creed. 

124. In the earliest times Christian churches were 
made use of for the practice of the new religion. It 
was only when the whole of the East had become united 
through Islam that independent Arabian art was de- 
veloped. After the empire of the Caliph had spread 
from the confines of India to Spain, Arabian architec- 
ture diffused itself from Bagdad as a center by the 
erection of many splendid palaces and mosques. These 
last-mentioned buildings, however, did not have such 
an effect on the formation of the style as was the case 
with the sacred buildings of nations professing other 
religions, whose worship required certain settled forms. 

Mosques, however, have also their essential parts, that 
must never be wanting; but their design is not normal, 
and consequently the main form of the mosque is not 
a settled one. The requisite parts of a mosque are as 
follows : the Mihrab, or Hall of Prayer, which mark the 
direction of Mecca (Kibleh), and which must eonse« 



204 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



quently have had a different position in different coun- 
tries; then a place for the ablutions, which precede 
prayer; and finally a large space for the entry and 
departure of the faithful, for the reading of the Koran 
and prayers. In this space are the Maksura, or seat of 
the Caliph, when one was required; as also a place for 
the preservation of the Koran, and finally the Mimbar, 
or kind of pulpit. A further requirement is the Min- 
aret, a kind of tower, from which the Iman calls the 
hour of prayer, and of which the larger mosques 
generally possess four or six. 





1€T7T7ZT. — 


i J 


-.- i ^. 




I6U h\r m 1 



Fig. 113. GROUND PLAN OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN TOULOUN 
AT CAIRO. 



125. Two main forms are noticeable in the design 
of mosques. The one, which belongs to the western 
countries of Islam, and is the older of the two, is a 
lengthened square shut in by walls and surrounded with 
arcades on the inside, without a roof, and often planted 
with trees (Fig. a, 113). A well (b) covered by a 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 205 

cupola always constitutes one of the chief ornaments 
of this court-like space. On one side is a covered build- 
ing (A), in which are introduced the hall of prayer (d) 
and the sanctuary and pulpit (e), and which often con- 
sists of several rows of arcades running one behind 
another with a flat roof. 

Besides the portals and battlements, the only orna- 
mentation that the exterior receives is the slender tower 
or minaret (f, Fig. 114). There seems to be no fixed 
rule for its position. This design seems more impor- 
tant, when the Mausoleum of the founder is connected 



Fig. 114. PART OF THE SECTION OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN 
TOULOUN AT CAIRO. 



with it, rising in a high vaulted dome over the main 
body of the building. The buildings and arcades are 
covered with domes of various shapes. 

126. In the other kind of mosques, which are con- 
structed on the model of the Byzantine style, the body 
of the building forms an independent and separate 
feature, in which the main space, as well as the side 
spaces, are covered by vaultings in the Byzantine fashion, 
the roof of the former being a dome. The outer court, 
surrounded by arcades, also occurs, and these arcades 
have likewise small dome-vaultings. The exterior is 



206 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



more gracefully constructed, and the introduction of 
several minarets, from two to six, at the comers, has 
an elevating effect. Although a Byzantine model is 
recognizable in the main design, still an Asiatic, and 
chiefly Indian influence is unmistakable in the external 
forms, and especially in the domes. 

127. Taken as a whole, Arabian architecture, in ac- 
cordance with the oriental manner of life, may be 
described as internal rather than external ; especially in 
palaces and dwelling-houses. Whilst the tasteless ex- 
terior of buildings only displays to the eye high walls 



if^ffl^^^^f 






gR:[^.raS:Si 




FIG. 115. DETAIL OF THE 
EXTERNAL BATTLEMENT Fig. 116. DETAIL MARKED 
MARKED y IN Fig. 114. x IN FIG. 114. 



which are irregularly pierced by small windows, and 
those few in number, everything in the interior is 
richly decorated. The richest ornamentation is lavished 
on the most essential part of these buildings, namely, 
on the porticoes which surround the open court. There 
are no fixed orders or proportions for the pillars, as 
there are in Grecian and Roman architecture: some- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 207 

times they are squat and heavy; at others slender and 
graceful, especially in the later period. 

128. In the different countries which were subjected 
to the sway of the Arabs, three different forms of 
arches, besides the circular arch, which is of rare oc- 
currence, are met with in the arcades, and in connec- 
tion with the doors and windows. In Egypt and Sicily 
occurs the pointed arch (Fig. 117), which consists of 
curves, and resembles the arch, which was subsequently 
employed in the West in the Pointed or Grothic style, 
only that it is more elliptical. It occurs in monuments 
which are perhaps rightly attributed to the earliest 
period of Mahometan architecture: but there is no 
doubt that it is met with in buildings which belong to 
the beginning of the ninth century. 



Fig. 117. Fig. 119. Fig. 118. 

ARABIAN ARCHES. 

In Persia and India the keel-arch occurs (Fig. 118), 
which differs slightly from the pointed-arch, the ends of 
the curves being bent slightly upwards, in the shape of 
the keel of a vessel. In Spain the horse-shoe arch (Fig. 
119) is the most frequent form, which consists of a 
larger segment of a circle than that formed by a semi- 
circle. 

These different forms of arches were not architec- 
turally determined and systematically carried out in 
the various buildings in which they occur, but employed 
rather in an arbitrary manner. 



208 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



129. The walls over these arches are covered, as all 
flat surfaces generally were, with embellishments in the 
shape of arabesques, which either consist of flat relief 
in stucco, or are painted in lively colors. They are 




Fig. 120. MOORISH WALL DECORATION IN THE ALHAMBRA 
AT GRANADA. 



formed of the most multifarious entwinings of straight 
or curved lines or belts, sometimes bearing a resemblance 
to vegetable forms, as Figs. 120, 121, 122, and 123 
demonstrate. Each of these patterns is extended over 
considerable surfaces. A brilliant but not a staring 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



209 



general effect is produced, in spite of the lively colors, 
which must be attributed to the fact that each color 
is spread over a very small surface, and consequently 
does not become too prominent. 







Fig. 121. 



In conformity with religious regulations, the orna- 
mentations never express a symbolic meaning. On the 
other hand, numerous inscriptions form an essentially 
characteristic part of the embellishment of Saracenic 
buildings: they are principally passages from the 
Koran, or proverbs, and are introduced in the principal 
parts of the ornamentation. The inscriptions of the 
older style, in the Kufic character, so called from Kufa 



210 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



a town on the Euphrates (Fig, 124), is ornamental in 
form, and blends harmoniously with the other embellish- 
ments. At a later period the Italic character (Fig. 125), 
which is less stiff, came into use for the same purpose. 




Fig. 122. 



Fig. 123. WALL DECORATION 
FROM THE ALHAMBRA AT 
GRANADA. 



130. For the roofing of buildings straight beams 
and vaultings were both in use. For the latter Arabian 
architecture has created a quite peculiar and highly- 
characteristic form. The vaulting consists of small 
cavities, or miniature domes, which rise one above 
another till the topmost forms a kind of point at the 
top (Figs. 126 and 127). The effect of these vaultings, 
which resemble stalactite grottoes, and which are richly 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 211 

ornamented with coloring, is complicated rather than 
worthy of imitation. Properly speaking, they do not 
deserve the name of vaultings, inasmuch as they have 
nothing in common with that kind of construction, and 



1^ 


S 


"S 


IF 




fi^^JiSdi^ 




^^ 






r^» 


r^^fl^^ 




a^mm 




^<4o;i 


loltt 




B^ 






n^ 


^KJ 




^1 




SSL 


1^ 



Fig. 124. KUFIC CHARACTER EMPLOYED AS DECORATION. 

should be considered rather as fantastic eccentricities. 
They almost always consist of plaster or wood and are 
strengthened by beams and roofing. 




Fig. 125. ITALIC CHARACTER EMPLOYED AS DECORATION. 



The domes are for the most part flat and plain ex- 
ternally, or ornamented with stripes like a gourd; in 
buildings of importance they are larger, and either semi- 
circular or tapering. 



212 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



It now remains, after the above remarks on Arabian 
architecture in general, to describe the peculiarities of 




Fig. 126. SECTION OF PART OF 

THE ROOF OF THE CAPELLA 

PALATINA AT PALERMO. 



PROFILE OF FIG. 126. 




Fig. 127. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF PART OF A VAULT FORMED 
BY SMALL SUPERINCUMBENT ARCHES. 



style which arose in the various countries in which 
Saracenic buildings were erected. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 213 



2. Arabian Architecture in Spain. 



131/ Spain was conquered by the Arabs in the year 
711 A.D., and in 755 Abd el Rahman founded an inde- 
pendent Arabian empire in that country, and after he 
had reigned for thirty-five years began to adorn his 
capital, Cordova, with buildings; especially by the con- 
struction of a large mosque; and Arabian architecture 
in Spain may be said to commence with that structure. 
The Roman style that was prevalent in the country was 
to a certain extent retained, and the fragments of 
Roman buildings were employed in the new structures. 

The most flourishing period of Arabian art in Spain 
was during the reign of Abd el Rahman III., from 912 
to 961, under which monarch Cordova reached the high- 
est pitch of its splendor. He caused buildings to be 
erected in many of the cities of the country, especially in 
the newly-founded town of Zahra, in which the simple 
forms of the earlier centuries appear already giving 
way to rich and fantastic shapes. In the same way as 
the Roman style had at first formed the model, so now 
the Byzantine style was preferred, on account of its 
yielding richer forms. But independent features were 
employed in connection with these Byzantine elements, 
and forms, which were quite peculiar to the Arabs, 
such as the horse-shoe arch, were mingled with> them. 
The relations with Byzantine art were finally entirely 
broken off, when after long internal struggles with the 
Christian knights, Arabian Spain passed under the yoke 
of the African Moors, and Morocco became the seat of 
government. 



214 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

132. Buildings were erected at Seville, as well as at 
Cordova: and amongst these the Minaret, which is 
called the Giralda, is especially remarkable. It was 
erected in 1195, and is still in existence ; in it the forms 
of the Early Arabian and Byzantine styles have already 
disappeared. The Alcazar is also worthy of notice, and 
though it has undergone many changes through subse- 
quent restorations, still it exhibits essentially the same 
forms as the Giralda. For instance, the capitals, which 
are still Corinthian, are of a graceful, slender shape, 
instead of being heavy, as heretofore, and the arches 
assume a pointed character instead of the broad circu- 
lar. They never, however, take the shape of the simple 
pointed arch, but are indented at the top and on the 
inner sides with various little arches. Similar towers 
to the Giralda are found at Morocco, Tunis, and Tetuan, 
whilst the minarets at Cairo and in the East are differ- 
ent. 

133. Whilst the Arabian buildings at Cordova (Fig. 
128), as well as similar isolated remains in other towns 
of Spain, belong to the first period of Arabian archi- 
tecture in that country, as is evidenced by their clumsy 
application and imitation of Roman and Byzantine forms, 
the buildings at Seville belong to the second period, 
which was that of the freer development of the strictly 
Moorish style; although it still retained some reminis- 
cences of earlier times. In the third period the forms 
were entirely independent, and were also richer and 
more peculiar, and the buildings were characterized by 
variegated and magnificent ornamentation. This style 
is illustrated by the buildings of Granada, and, above 
all, by the Alhambra. 

It was only during the latter period of Saracenic rule 
in Spain, after Cordova and Seville were again in the 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



215 



possession of Christian kings, and Andalusia had be- 
come the last place of refuge for the Mahometan popu- 
lation, that Granada, which had been founded in the 
tenth century, became powerful and important as the 
point of concentration for Moorish power and civiliza- 
tion in Spain, and as the seat of a brilliant court and 




Fig. 128. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE AT CORDOVA. 



a school of arts and sciences. The city attained the 
zenith of its splendor in the fourteenth century. But 
small remains exist of its numerous palaces. Besides 
the Generalife, which is a graceful garden-pavilion in 
the style of the Alhambra, only the Alliambra itself 
remains as the most important and best-preserved speci- 
men of its romantic splendor. 



216 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



134. The Alhambra forms a portion of the town 
which was entirely surrounded by fortifications; in 
fact, the citadel on which were built, besides the royal 
palace, public buildings and the houses of the court 
officials, and displays externally only the walls and 
towers of a fortress. The castle was founded in the 
thirteenth century, during the reign of Abou Abdallah 




Fig. 129. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA AT GRANADA. 



ben Nassar, who died in 1270. But the richest and 
most beautiful parts of the building which are still 
remaining, were carried out by Abou-el-Walid (1309- 
1325), and by Abou Abdallah (1325-1391). One of the 
last kings, Muley Hassan (1445-1453), only added some 
smaller portions. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 217 

Though part of the castle was turned into a modern 
palace under Charles V., yet the most beautiful parts 
of the interior are still preserved. They consist of 
splendid halls and dwelling-rooms grouped round two 
courts, the one, the Court of the Alberca, with its 
double row of myrtles, and the other the celebrated 
Court of the Lions. (Fig. 130.) (For plan, see Fig. 
129.) 

This Court of the Lions, so-called from the fountain, 
which is placed in the center, and supported by twelve 
of these animals, is a hall surrounded by graceful 
columns and arches, while in the middle of the narrow 
side of the court the projecting columns form pavilions, 
in which are other fountains. On the south side is the 
Hall of the Abencerages (a), so-called because the 
knights of the race of the Abencerages were murdered 
here, while on the north side is the Hall of the Two 
Sisters ( & ) . 

The most celebrated amongst the magnificent and 
graceful dwelling-chambers and banquet-halls are the 
following: The Audience Hall, or Hall of the Ambas- 
sadors, with a banquet hall in front; the Hall of the 
Abencerages; the Hall of the Two Sisters, in which 
were the women's apartments, and which consisted of a 
large hall with two side-halls and a cabinet ; and finally 
a long, narrow hall called the Hall of Judgment, which 
took in the east side of the Court of the Lions. The 
combination of all these graceful halls and courts, with 
fountains and arcades, and with delightful little gar- 
dens attached to them, and gleaming with rich and mag- 
nificent coloring, lends a romantic charm to the whole. 

The whole of the interior is of a highly ornamental 
character, and displays in the design of the decorations 



218 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




EAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 219 

a carpet-like treatment, rather than a monumental one, 
or one based on constructive elements. Light slender 
columns carry a wall which is covered with various 
decorative patterns upon stilted arches, which are lightly- 
relieved with filigree work. In spite, however, of the 
free choice which was allowed in the various forms of 
the details, the whole seems imbued with a spirit of 
harmony. 

There is a very successful imitation of the Court of 
the Lions with the adjoining halls, two-thirds of the 
natural size, at the Crystal Palace, which is well calcu- 
lated to convey the magic impression which this build- 
ing must have raised in the days of its splendor, and 
which it even now creates, although devouring time has 
robbed it of much of its pristine magnificence. 

Since the Alhambra is especially suitable to illustrate 
the character of the Later Arabian style in Spain, and 
because the Moorish system of ornamentation found in 
that building its most splendid and most complete ex- 
pression, a general description of the details of the 
Alhambra will not be inappropriate. 

135. The architectural style is essentially the same 
in the different parts of the Alhambra. The columns 
are very slender and elegant, the height being twelve 
times the diameter (Fig. 131), and adorned in the in- 
terior of the building with various colors and devices. 
The capital (Fig. 132) is almost always in the shape of 
a cube with the lower corners rounded off and adorned 
with interlacing representations of plants, whilst it is 
separated from the shaft by a long neck with several 
fillets. The base also is separated from the shaft by a 
torus, and consists of one simple cavetto only. A rec- 
tangular cube rests on the capital and supports a cir- 



220 Ex^SY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 






Fig. 132. CAPITAL OF A COLUMN 
IN THE ALHAMBRA AT GRANADA 




Pig. 131. COLUMN WITH SUPER 

STRUCTURE IN THE ALHAMBRA 

AT GRANADA. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 221 

cular arch with a vertical prolongation of the circum- 
ference (stilted arch). The beams which it supports 
are always adorned with Arabic inscriptions, either 
along their entire breadth, or interspersed with other 
ornaments. The arch never terminates directly in the 
capital or cubical architrave, but finishes on the side of 
the superstructure. The inside of the arch is not 
smooth, but ornamented with artistic decorations in 
stucco, which depend in points and resemble embroid- 
ery, richly interlaced and filigreed (Figs. 133 and 134), 
whilst often they assume the less pleasing shape of 
stalactites (Fig. 135). 




Fig. 135. BORDER OB 
THE LOWER SIDE OF 
Fig. 134. EMBELLISHMENTS OF THE AN ARCH, RESEMBLING 
LOWER SIDE OF ARCHES. STALACTITES. 



136. The walls of the various chambers are uniform- 
ly ornamented after the same system, but with greater 
variety of pattern. The lower part for about three to 
four feet in height is inlaid with mosaic of a rich de- 
sign, formed of glazed tiles, and ornamented with a 
narrow band, over which is a frieze with inscriptions. 



222 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

which also serve as embellishments, the letters being in 
tert wined with the ornamentations (compare Fig. 124). 
Over this frieze there is a square surrounded by a 
border, which serves as the chief embellishment, and 
resembles a large carpet with patterns artistically in- 
terwoven ; and immediately below the ceiling is a broad 
frieze, which frequently has half-columns as supports 
for the domes that form the roof. These domes have the 
stalactite form which has previously been alluded to 
(Sect. 130), consisting of small groups of niches with 
dependent points. 

The richness of the various details is worked up to 
the highest magnificence by the tasteful variations of 
coloring, both in the domes and on the walls. The colors 
are so arranged, that the most softened are predomi- 
nant in the lower parts, the deepest on the main surface 
of the walls, whilst the most brilliant are employed on 
the remote and elaborate portions of the ceiling. On or- 
namented surfaces the darker and more powerful colors 
were generally introduced in the receding portions, and 
in this way were toned down by the shading of the more 
prominent parts, which being gilt or painted in light 
colors were thereby brought into still more prominent 
relief. 

The various colors were either separated from one 
another by white bands, or this was effected by the shad- 
ing produced by the relief. The harmony of the entire 
surface, when painted in various colors and covered 
with ornamentation in relief, was brought about in the 
most natural and effective way by means of gilding. 

137. By this arrangement of gradual transition from 
the simple to the artistic and magnificent, and by the 
proportion of the ornamented surfaces to each other, in 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 223 

spite of a lavish richness of ornamentation, a desirable 
harmony is attained, which causes the various parts to 
blend eoncordantly, and produces a general impression 
of repose. The designs of the enrichments contribute to 
this effect, for being on a small scale, and not concen- 
trated or strongly marked, so as to claim the eye's ex- 
clusive attention, they do not detract from the general 
effect. The patterns in the various panellings have no 
connection with each other, and present the appearance 
of detached carpet-patterns, without exercising any in- 
fluence on the architecture as a whole ; and even if the 
eye be arrested and employed by one particular detail, it 
has no power to disturb the general survey. 

The patterns of these embellishments are, it is true, 
often very similar, but they are never quite alike, in- 
variably differing in, some of their numerous combina- 
tions. The inscriptions are introduced sometimes in 
bold Kufic character, at others with the letters inter- 
lacing both in a horizontal and a vertical direction, that 
is from the bottom to the top of the wall, so that they 
can only be read conveniently by a person in a recum- 
bent position. 

138. It is only in the ornamentation of these surfaces 
that any artistic taste is displayed in Arabian architec- 
ture in Spain; constructive forms are either non-existent 
or thrown into the background. The more new peculiar- 
ities of formation gain ground, the more do the archi- 
tectonic and constructive elements vanish, and the latter 
remain in Arabian architecture generally, with its in- 
complete knowledge of technics, subordinate to the dec- 
orative principle. Attention was consequently more di- 
rected to the fantastic and elegant, than to the massive 
and magnificent. 



224 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



3. Arabian Architecture in Egypt and Sicily. 

139. Egypt was subjected to the sway of the Arabs, 
and to Islam by the Caliph Omar. It formed at first a 
province of the Great Caliphate, and though it subse- 
quently passed under the rule of independent rulers, it 
never again attained its former prosperity. The genius 
of the land remained as before serious and gloomy, and 
continued to exercise an influence on its artistic produc- 
tions. 

The most important buildings of the Arabs in Egypt 
which are known to us, and from which our opinion has 
to be formed of the style of architecture which they in- 
troduced into that country, which was modified by its 
genius, are to be found at Cairo or Musa, which was 
founded in the tenth century, and became one of the 
largest and most important cities of the East. 

The earlier buildings, of which the oldest is the 
Mosque of Amrou at Old Cairo founded in 643, are 
very simple ; the latter ones are richer. The richest and 
most important mosque is that of Sultan Hassan (Llelik- 
el-IIassan), which was constructed in the year 1356 a. 
D., /. e., 758 of the Hegira. The design varies from the 
usual form, and the exterior is imposing. 

140. In the buildings of Arabian architecture in 
Egypt, a more solid construction and more powerful 
forms are perceptible than in the more graceful struc- 
tures in Spain and Persia, but still a thorough execution 
and an organic perfection are wanting. Its simplicity 
has at times something magnificent, which borders, how- 
ever, on vacuity, a fact which is principally owing to 
the deficiency in all definite constructive parts. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 225 

The style of Arabian buildings in Egypt and Sicily is 
principally to be distinguished from those which occur 
in Spain, India, and Persia by the frequent occurrence 
of the pointed arch, which first came into common use 
among the Egyptian Arabs. Sometimes it occurred in 
its simple shape, as in the West, in the so-called Gothic 
style, but it was generally depressed (see Fig. 117), 
frequently with a straight prolongation of the haunch. 
The keel-arch of Persia, and the horseshoe arch are not 
entirely excluded, but they are of rare occurrence. Still, 
however, in no building does one distinct form of arch 
occur to the total exclusion of others. 

The arches rest either on pillars, or on plain or mould- 
ed piers adorned at the corners with half -columns. Al- 
though the arch construction is on the whole predomi- 
nant, it was not used for the vaulting of large spaces, 
which were, on the other hand, provided with flat roofs : 
this was probably partly owing to deficiency in techni- 
cal knowledge. When vaultings occur, they are general- 
ly secured by braces, beams and cement ; whilst they are 
often entirely of wood. 

141. The mosques, at least the older ones, consist 
(see Section 125) of an open court, in which the side of 
the sanctuary is only distinguished from the rest by 
various rows of columns. In the middle of the court 
stands the quadrangular, or octagonal building, covered 
with a dome, which is intended for ablutions. 

In the minarets (Fig. 136) the slender circular shape 
occurs, as it does in Persia and India, but also the 
square shape, with round or octagonal substructures. 

The dwelling-houses are tasteless externally, accord- 
ing to Oriental custom, with small windows pierced 
high up in the walls, and with overhanging balconies in 
the upper stories (Fig. 137), the windows of which, as 



226 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Al. 




.,.„. 1 


.■.:3 


■'■'■ 




■■■" * 


v^'' 


-r-.-TTT 




"CC 


fM 


-sz ^t^ 


ri2 




-!|^ 









Fig. 137. BALCONY AT CAIRO. 



Fig. 136. 
MINARET AT CAIRO. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 227 

well as those of the lower stories, are secured by wooden 
lattice-work, which, with its variously intertwining 
patterns, forms the only, or, at any rate, principal 
charm of the exterior of the houses. 

The interiors, on the other hand, display riches and 
luxury: a spacious court, paved with various kinds of 
marble or stone, in varied patterns, and provided with a 
foundation, is surrounded by open vestibules, beyond 
which are the doors that conduct to the various apart- 
ments, which also have latticed windows. 

Ornamentation, as in the Arabian architecture in 
Spain, plays here too an important part, especially in 
the embellishment of surfaces. The same fantastic com- 
binations and the same brilliant coloring produce the 
same effect and exhibit the same shortcomings. 

142. In the course of the ninth century Sicily was 
also subjected to the sway of the Arabs. After the 
island had attained great prosperity in the tenth cen- 
tury under its new masters, it was again conquered by 
the Normans under Count Roger, 1090 a. d. 

But the Arab element had now become engrafted in 
the population, and consequently the Norman chiefs 
favored and advanced the Arabian arts and sciences 
which they found already existent, and caused buildings 
to be erected by Arab architects, which accounts for the 
fact that those structures which were reared during the 
Christian rule of the Normans still bear an Arabian im- 
press, although Christian elements are mingled with 
them. 

Nearly all the numerous castles and towns which were 
built in Sicily by the Saracens are destroyed. Two 
buildings, however, have been preserved at Palermo, in 
which the style of the Arabs is indubitably recognizable ; 



228 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



the palaces of La Ziza and La Cuba (Fig. 138), which 
were erected before the period of Norman rule, proba- 
blj^ in the tenth century. These buildings, which are less 
allied to Moorish constructions in Spain than to those at 
Cairo, have much in common with the latter, as the solid 
workmanship of the material, the long divisions of the 




Fig. 138. LA CUBA AT PALERMO. 

plain and lofty walls, and especially the pointed arch 
and the way it is introduced; and finally the favorite 
embellishment of the facade by the alternation of stone 
or glazed tiles of different colors, which were introduced 
in horizontal bands. 



4. Perso- Arabian Architecture. 



143. In consequence of the battle of Kadesia, 636 
A. D., the Persian rulers of the dynasty of the Sassanides 
were compelled to yield to the Arabs, who burst upon 
them with the impetuous fury which marked the follow- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 229 

ers of that creed whicli rapidly spread over the whole of 
Persia. But being a nomad race, and possessing few 
acquirements, and particularly no architecture of their 
own, the victors adopted the civilization of the con- 
quered people, in the furtherance of which Greek Chris- 
tians were also employed. Under the Abassides, in the 
course of the eighth and ninth centuries, the Arabian 
and the Old-Oriental elements were amalgamated into 
one whole. Bagdad was the splendid capital of this 
dynasty, where under Haroun-al-Raschid, who died in 
809, ^rts and sciences were especially cultivated: still 
more was this the case under the rule of Mahmoud 
Jemin-el-Dowlah, who died in 1029 at Ghazni, on the 
confines of India and Persia. 

In the ninth century the artistic reputation of the 
Arabs was so considerable that the Byzantine Emperor 
Theophilus caused a summer-palace to be constructed 
after the design of the palace of the Caliph at Bagdad. 
Perso- Arabian architecture owes an especial impetus to 
the construction of fresh capitals, which was necessitated 
by the frequent change of dynasties. Owing to the 
Buides, whose seat was at Shiraz (932-1056), and still 
more owing to the dynasty at Ghazni, on the Indian 
border (977-1184), Old-Oriental, that is Old Persian 
and Indian elements exercised an ever-increasing in- 
fluence, and during the rule of the Mongols (1220-1405), 
as well as under the Turkish races of the Sofides (from 
1505), the same tendency was continued. 

144. The strict difference of style between these 
epochs, which are thus designated by their dynastic 
names, cannot be indicated, owing to our imperfect 
knowledge of the buildings in question. But still it may 
be gathered from the judgment of travellers, who could 



230 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

scarcely distinguish old from new, that no material al- 
teration had supervened in the constructions of the Ma- 
hometan period. 

Our information, however, regarding the buildings of 
a later period is more accurate; as, amongst others, of 
those of Ispahan, which was founded by Shah Abbas the 
Great (a. d. 1585-1629), of the dynasty of the Sofides, or 
Sufis. He caused magnificent buildings, which were 
mostly of public utility, such as bazaars, caravansaries 
for travellers, consisting of quadrangular or octagonal 
courts surrounded by halls and buildings of various 
kinds, to be erected in his capital. 

145. The principal characteristic of the Perso-Ara- 
bian style is the arch. Although they are sometimes 
round or pointed, still they are generally broad with a 
swelling line and terminal point, not unlike the shape of 
the keel of a vessel, and therefore called the keel-arch 
(see Fig. 118). They are, however, devoid of con- 
structive importance, as they do not serve to support 
anything, but on the other hand, require support them- 
selves; they convey the impression of lightness and 
freedom, and generally rest on broad piers without 
columns. Pillars appear only to occur of wood, as sup- 
ports for horizontal roofs in the halls of the palaces. A 
further essential component part, at least in all the 
larger buildings, is the dome. Whilst sometimes of 
simple hemispherical shape, it frequently is slightly con- 
tracted at the base, and runs up into a point above 
(Fig. 139), it has the bulging form as in Russian archi- 
tecture, but its shape is nobler and more lofty. The 
domes are adorned with variegated colors in different 
patterns. 

Internally the vaultings have the stalactite shape, and 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



231 



are sometimes formed of small flat niches. (Compare 
Figs. 126 and 127). 

The mosques and palaces generally have portals, 
which consist of a large hall or recess, with a gleaming 
stalactite vaulting of azure and gold. The minarets 




Fig. 139. PERSO-ARABIAN PORTAL WITH DOME AND MINARETS. 



are slender and decorated with glazed tiles (Fig. 139). 
Private buildings are lightly constructed of tiles, and 
the exteriors are painted in bright but not unpleasing 
colors, and adorned internally with mirrors and paint- 
ings from which the human form is not excluded for the 
Persians do not observe the prohibition of the Koran in 



232 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



this respect. These paintings however, have no artistic 
value, inasmuch as they are deficient in expression, shad- 
ing and perspective. 







Fig. 140. 



SECTION OF THE TOMB OF SULTAN TCHODABENDAH 
(A. D. 1303—1316) AT SULTANIEP. 



The Perso- Arabian system of ornamentation is not so 
pure as the Moorish; an effort at immediate representa- 
tion of nature, such as plants and flowers, is especially 
noticeable. 

Fig. 140 gives the section of a tomb in the shape of a 
large octangular dome. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 233 



5. Arabian Architecture in India. 

146. At the end of the twelfth century hordes, which 
were principally Turco-Tartar in their origin, poured 
irresistibly into Hindustan, and there founded a perma- 
nent Mahometan empire, of which the capital was Delhi. 
So quickly did this city increase in importance and pop- 
ulation, that, at the end of the thirteenth century, it con- 
stituted the most brilliant court of the then world, and 
becoming the largest town in the East, and like a second 
Rome, was filled with public buildings, mosques, palaces, 
and mausoleums. This prosperity reached its highest 
pitch under the rule of the Toglucks (a. d. 1321-1398, 
particularly under that of Feroze), but it collapsed with 
their downfall. For the Mongols, who under Timour 
drove out the Tartars, destroyed Delhi in such a way 
that only insignificant remains of its former magnifi- 
cence are remaining. A new conqueror, the Emperor 
Baber, founded in 1526 the dynasty of the great Moguls, 
whose residence was Agra, not far from Delhi. Agra 
soon threw the capital of the former dynasty into the 
shade, and was adorned with buildings of great splendor. 
Numerous specimens of their buildings are still in exist- 
ence, both at Agra and at other places in India, as, for 
instance, in the neighborhood of the river Jumna, which 
testify to the love of magnificence and the excellent tech- 
nical skill of these Tartar races. 

147. As characteristic of the monuments erected dur- 
ing the Pathan dynasties, which flourished from the con- 
elusion of the twelfth century till about the end of the 
fourteenth, it must in general be remarked that the 
ruins of Old Delhi exhibit an application and pureness 



234 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

of ornamentation in common with all other Mahometan 
styles, but at the same time they display to larger pro- 
portions and dimensions, and the forms are grand 
throughout. The domes which occur here, as in all 
Mahometan styles, are often simply spherical, surround- 
ed at the lower margin with a circuit of battlements re- 
sembling foliage; the walls are generally divided by 
straight belts in a perpendicular and horizontal direc- 
tion. The openings are sometimes spanned by simple 
pointed arches of the form prevalent in the West, and at 
others with keel arches; and in the case of small pa- 
vilions with straight entablatures resting on pillars or 
piers. Still more development and execution is evinced 
by the monuments of Pathan architecture which were 
erected at Beejapore in the Deccan. In the middle of 
the fifteenth century this place was the capital of an in- 
dependent Mahometan kingdom, but was subjected to 
the Great Mogul during the latter half of the fifteenth 
century, and is now only a city of ruins, where, how- 
ever, many splendid buildings are still standing. 

148. In these structures there usually rises over the 
center of the building the dome, surrounded by battle- 
ments resting on a platform, and with a quadrangular 
substructure. This dome is generally bulbous in shape, 
bulging out beyond the line of its base, and terminating 
in a point above ; whilst sometimes, but rarely, it is hem- 
ispherical. The main plan of the building is generally 
square, and less frequently octagonal. The walls are al- 
ways divided by broad perpendicular pilasters which are 
connected by keel arches, whilst above them massive 
rectangular entablatures project obliquely, which sup- 
port galleries, over which battlements of the shape pe- 
culiar to this style of architecture, namely, oval shaped, 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



235 



pointed leaves, form the finish. Octagonal or round 
towers with small domes distinguish the corners of the 
building. The arches are always supported by strong 
square piers without capitals. 

The mosques have, as generally m Inaia, the snape of 
a square, the simple, massive walls of which are orna- 
mented with towers at the comers (Fig. 141). The en- 
trance consists of a large, projecting, tower-like struc- 
ture, with a lofty gate with a keel arch. In the interior 




Fig. 141. THE JUMNA MOSQUE AT DELHI. 



the court is surrounded on three sides by a simple arcade, 
whilst the fourth, on which is the sanctuary, is raised 
somewhat higher, and the doors not being shut, a view 
into the inner halls is obtained. The mosques are only 
moderately ornamented internally, whilst the palaces, 
on the other hand, which have several stories, display 
every possible richness in embellishment. 

149. The gorgeous mausoleums are especially im- 
portant, of which that of Mahomed Shah is massive and 



236 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

heavy, but still of striking simplicity, and 
dome the span of which exceeds that of St. Paul's, Lon- 
don; while that of his father, Ibrahim Adil Shah, who 
died in 1626, is lighter and more graceful. 

The tombs occupy the middle of a tank, which is sur- 
rounded by broad garden-walks, accessible to the public, 
and connected with mosques, from which the monumen- 
tal portion stands out prominently. This building gen- 
erally consists of a square or octagon, bounded by towers 
or minarets, with four large entrances spanned by 
arches, which lead to the central space, where the coffins 
stand under the dome on a raised platform, shut off by a 
balustrade, richly adorned with mosaics. This form, al- 
though the usual one, is not of universal application, for 
there occur, also, pyramidal designs something similar to 
the Dagoba, consisting of open halls with stories. The 
richest and most charming of all these tombs is that of 
the Taje Mehal. 

In general all these buildings exhibit a stately yet 
simple character, which is decidedly an improvement on 
the ordinary Mahometan styles. This is joined with a 
certain richness of details and with the full and luxuri- 
iant forms of the East, whilst here and there the in- 
fluence of early Indian architecture gave rise to curious 
details, which did not correspond with the otherwise 
noble forms of these structures, as, for instance, the bar- 
barous ornament of chains of stone worked out of a 
single block. The style of the buildings at Beejapoor is 
similar to that of those at Agra, and the splendor of the 
whole of the designs corresponds: the walls of the in- 
terior are richly inlaid with mosaics formed of precious 
stones. 

150. The magnificent buildings with which Shah 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 237 

Jehan-Abad richly adorned New Delhi in the seven- 
teenth century are essentially the same in style as those 
at Beejapoor, but their character is more elegant and 
less stately. The forms still are, however, praiseworthy, 
the main lines are well defined and uninterrupted, and 
the divisions symmetrical. The walls are higher and 
simpler, the entablatures are less projecting, and the 
bastion-like corner towers do not always occur. A very 
customary composition consists of a large gateway in the 
center of the wall, with a broad keel arch, on both sides 
of which the walls, which are relieved by windows or 
arches, are divided by perpendicular belts and horizontal 
lines (Fig. 141). 



6. Turkish Architecture. 

151. The last stage of Arabian architecture is that 
of the modern Turkish Empire. 

After the conquest of the Grecian Empire by the 
Turks, that people made use of the buildings which they 
found ready at hand, as they had done in other in- 
stances previously, and they fell into the Byzantine 
style, with the admixture of oriental forms in the details 

WTien, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ma- 
homet II. began to adorn his new capital, he made use 
of Christian art and Christian architects. The Christian 
churches were dedicated to Islam, and under the guise of 
a mosque, the Church of Sta. Sophia soon came to be 
considered as very sacred. We consequently find that 
Arabian architecture, in its Turkish phase, did not un- 
dergo the same development as it did in the other coun- 
tries where Mahometanism was the prevailing creed. 



238 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Owing to this imitation, of existing Byzantine forms, of 
which the Church of Sta. Sophia was the highest model, 
and to the employment of the materials such as pillars, 
&c., which were available from the older Byzantine 
buildings, a very great similarity exists between the 
mosque and the Christian church. The principal differ- 
ence consists in the lively decoration of the interior, and 




Fig. 142. FACADE OP THE SULTAN AHMED MOSQUE AT CON- 
STANTINOPLE. 



the introduction of inscriptions instead of sculpture, 
which is common to all Mahometan buildings, and finally 
in the addition of slender minarets and the indispensable 
fore court. 

. The most splendid of all the mosques of Constanti- 
nople is that of the Sultan Ahmed (a. d. 1600) (Figs, 
142 and 143) ; which, after Byzantine fashion, forms a 
large square, and supports in the center a vast dome on 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



239 



massive fluted piers ; from the central dome depend four 
semi-domes, whilst four still smaller domes are intro- 
duced at the comers. In the newest of the domes of im- 
portance, which was completed by the Sultan Osman at 
the end of the seventeenth century, one dome covers the 
entire building. 




Fig. 143. GROUND-PLAN Fig. 142, 



In the architecture of palaces the modern western con- 
struction has lately been adopted at Constantinople 
and Alexandria. 

152. The essential particulars of the individual 
Arabian styles amongst the various Mahometan nations 
having now been considered, it remains to take a general 
survey of them when treated as a whole. 

It must firstly be remarked that owing to the immense 
diffusion and difference of origin of the nations which 



240 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

embraced the creed of Mahomet; and owing to the hetero- 
geneousness of the older native styles which prevailed at 
the time of its expansion, it was impossible that one uni- 
form style should be developed in one and the same way, 
although it started from one and the same point. This 
accounts for the little similarity that exists between 
buildings in the Arabian style as they occur in India or 
in Spain, or amongst the Turks in the Byzantine em- 
pire. But in spite of the heterogeneousness of the na- 
tions of Islam, a common stamp is visible in all; and 
consequently their buildings, although they vaiy con- 
siderably from one another, display a common peculiar- 
ity, which distinguishes them clearly from those of 
other nations, and which is highly characteristic of the 
tendencies of Mahometanism. 

153. Speaking generally, a definite totality of desiga 
is wanting in Mahometan buildings; for it is obvious at 
the first glance that the faulty forms of the exterior by 
no means correspond with those of the rich and elab- 
orate interior, and that the essential constructive parts 
appear incomplete and meaningless. Unity of form yields 
to arbitrariness, as is shown by the manner in which 
piers and pillars, vault's and arches, of the most differ- 
ent kinds are jumbled together; so that by the want of 
constructive skill in the treatment of these forms, both 
pillars and arches lose their intended effect, and appear 
unreal and feeble. Domes are readily introduced every- 
where, but they are never in organic connection with 
their rectilineal substructures, but always seem to rest 
on them in a capricious manner. 

It must further be remarked of Arabian architecture 
collectively, that the system of ornamentation is based 
principally on the decoration of flat surfaces. The plastic 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 241 

element could not be developed or even admitted, chiefly 
in consequence of the prohibition of sculptural repre- 
sentations by the Koran, and partly because all taste for 
this branch of art was wanting. 

The application of the pointed arch is also characteris- 
tic of Arabian architecture, but it was not carried out 
constructively and harmoniously as in the Gothic styles 
of the West, but employed rather as a decorative detail. 

154. From all these peculiarities viewed collectively, 
it appears that the main characteristics of Mahometan 
architecture are caprice and a striving after contrast. 
The latter tendency, however, is manifested in such a 
way, that, in spite of all its shortcomings, it asserts a 
certain pre-eminence, so that its deficiencies are not 
always apparent. 

In details, however much they vary in the different 
Mahometan countries, the skill and quaintness of a versa- 
tile and bold imagination are always manifest. 

155. Still more characteristic and universally met 
with is the stalactite vaulting which has been described 
in section 130, as also the decoration of the walls with 
the arabesques, which are peculiar to Arabian art, and 
have given their name to that species of ornament. 

These arabesques display so much ingenuity and taste, 
and such variety and grace in their designs, that they 
attain perfection in their own branch, in spite of the 
exclusion of everything imitative. Although regularity 
is persistently avoided, yet certain rules are recog-nizable. 
Thus, for instance, the straight line, which is employed 
in most of these ornamentations, never forms a right 
angle, at least not one that appears so, for when the de- 
sign seems likely to produce one, the line is slightly pro- 
longed, so as to bring about a complication of the pat- 



242 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

tern, or the right angle, if already begun, is broken off, 
and the line produced in another direction, so as to give 
rise to fresh intricacies. These lines have, moreover, 
generally an oblique bordering, so that they never form 
diagonals of the panelling. By the different disposition 
of the lines, besides many irregular designs, various 




Fig. 144. MURAL, DECORATION AT THE ALHAMBRA AT 
GRANADA. 



polygonal forms, such as stars, &e., are produced, the 
lines of which are extended beyond the point of an in- 
tersection, as shown in Fig. 144. In arabesques in which 
circular lines are predominant, the treatment is free, but 
they seldom form a circle or any other mathematical 
figure, but rather flowing curves, which have a rich and 
graceful effect. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 243 

A very simple and characteristic way of forming a 
mjarked contrast is by repeating the design in two colors 
in an inverse direction. (Fig. 145.) 




Fig. 145. ARABESQUE, WITH REPETITION OF THE DESIGN IN AN 
INVERSE DIRECTION. 



156. Colors are universally employed in these arab- 
esques, as they are in Arabian art in general, with great 
taste, and with a due appreciation of moderation; not 
only the usual decorative colors, as red, blue, white, and 
gold, but also green, violet, brown, yellow, and even 
black. In the lower decorated portions green, white, 



244 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

black, violet, blue, and dark yellow predominate ; on the 
walls the ground is red, the borders sky-blue, and the 
letters gold, while the stalactite domes and the little 
niches are generally gilt, or brightly painted with red 
and blue enrichments on a white ground. 



THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE. 

157. The series of original styles of architecture 
closes, strictly speaking, with the various styles that 
have been described in the foregoing divisions of this 
work, for all the new phases which have presented them- 
selves in the domain of architecture since the abandon- 
ment of the Gothic style are more or less imitations of 
what previously existed, or, at the most, new combina- 
tions of elements which had already been employed. The 
manner of their reapplication exhibits, on the other 
hand, a decided change, and many forms which were un- 
known in earlier times were developed in consequence of 
this reapplication, especially in the later period of the 
Renaissance style. 

As early as the beginning of the fifteenth century, art 
commenced to take a new course of development, which, 
accompanying the employment of the pointed arch dur- 
ing the latter part of the prevalence of the Gothic style, 
was speedily extended in all directions. 

The discovery of the productions of the ancients in 
statuary and painting, and the study of these works of 
art which was thereby stimulated, as well as the re- 
newed interest in classical literature which was contem- 
poraneously aroused by the long-hidden stores of Greek 
and Latin MSS. being brought to light, as, for instance. 



EASY LESSONS IN AECHITECTURE 245 

the work of Yitruvius on the architecture of the ancients, 
could not fail to bring Roman buildings into prominent 
notice, and to predispose the public mind in favor of 
the classic style. Science, moreover in accordance with 
the spirit of the age, began, like art, to be classical rather 
than romantic. 

A new system was consequently developed, during the 
first stages of which, namely, the Transition period, the 
elements of Eoman architecture came again into use, al- 
though the forms which belong to the Later Eomanesque 
period, as, for instance, the division of the window- 
arches by mullions, were not entirely abandoned. 

158. This new style of architecture, which is known 
by the distinctive name of the Renaissance, that is to say, 
the new birth of Roman architecture, first sprang into 
existence in Italy as early as the beginning of the 
fifteenth century. It reached its zenith in that country 
in the course of the same century, and at the beginning 
of the following became a model for all other countries, 
in which, however, the Gothic style prevailed for some 
time longer, and maintained its ground against the en- 
croachments of its rival. In Italy, on the other hand, the 
Pointed style W£is abandoned, except in isolated in- 
stances, and notably in Lombardy. The style which was 
thus introduced into the countries north of the Alps was 
consequently accepted there as one which was already 
developed, and the buildings constructed in it were mere 
imitations of the Italian; moreover, after it was intro- 
duced, it underwent no further change or development, 
and on" that account was designated, especially in Ger- 
many, as the Italian style. It will therefore be sufficient 
to describe its phases and characteristics as they appear 
in Italian buildings. 



246 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

The same reasons which militated against the develop- 
ment of the Gothic style in Italy were instrumental in 
occasioning the ready and definite acceptance in that 
country of the forms of ancient architecture. The large 
number of monuments of classical antiquity existing in 
Italy must have been favorable to the change, particular- 
ly as their influence had remained effective during the 
whole period of the Middle Ages. 

159. At the early epoch of its existence the new style 
of architecture displays not so much an alteration in the 
arrangement of the spaces and of the main features of 
the buildings, as in the system of ornamentation and in 
the aspect of the profiles. The object and construction 
of the buildings of the period in question were very dif- 
ferent from the colossal monuments of ancient Rome, 
which were now to serve as an example, and consequently 
the model was mainly copied in the decorative details, 
principally in the columnar orders with their various 
entablatures. It is owing to this cause that the facades 
appear to a certain degree to be merely appendages to 
the main building. Architects, moreover, could not at 
once abandon the customary freedom of conception 
which had been permissible in the Romanesque style, nor 
subject their imagination to the strict rules of Roman 
architecture by surrendering all endeavors to attain 
picturesque effects. Roman architecture was consequent- 
ly not at first a model which secured that slavish obedi- 
ence which became its prerogative in later times. At the 
outset, moreover, the essential character of Roman archi- 
tecture was not fully understood, as far as material and 
construction are concerned. It was consequently only in 
the case of buildings which did not require a total aban- 
donment of the prevalent style that Roman architecture 
was at first employed. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



247 



In accordance with the tendency of the age, eccle- 
siastical architecture, which had assumed such promi- 
nence during the prevalence of the Byzantine, Roman- 




Pig 146 VIEW OF A PORTION OF THE CERTOSA AT PAVIA. 



essque, and Gothic styles, was now thrown into the back- 
ground, whilst the style of the Renaissance was brought 
to the front in the construction of castles and palaces. 



248 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



The varieties that occur in the style of the Kenaissance 
are therefore not to be considered, as in the case of the 
previous styles, as the result of time and national pecu- 
liarity, but rather as the effects of individual and as- 
sumptive personal conceptions. 

The first period of this modern style of architecture is 
also its brightest one. The fagade of the Certosa at 
Pa via (Fig. 146) may be cited as the most notable in- 
stance. This was begun by Ambrogio Borgognone in 
1473, and is very rich in sculpture; but the rest of the 
building, with the exception of the dome, which is also 
Renaissance, belongs still to the Gothic period. 




Fig. 147. BOSSAGE OR RUSTIC-WORK. 



During the early period the endeavor was maintained 
to adapt classical forms with more or less freedom to 
modern buildings, whilst later, that is in the sixteenth 
century, a scheme based on ancient architecture was 
universally prescriptive. Two distinct styles belong to 
this first period, each possessing its especial peculiarities. 
These are: The Early Florentine and Early Venetian 
Renaissance styles. 

In the Roman Renaissance the system of the second 
period, which confines itself more closely to classical 
elements, is more prevalent. This Roman Renaissance 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 249 

was subsequently most widely extended, and was intro- 
duced into Venice, and to a less degree into Florence. 

The invention of printing exercised a considerable in- 
fluence on the development of this second system. The 
works of Vitruvius were translated into Italian and 
printed in 1521, and were soon extensively circu- 
lated. Owing to the tendency and predilection for clas- 
sical antiquity which were then beginning to be dis- 
played, as well as to the scanty knowledge of Roman 
architecture which the world then possessed, it is not to 
be wondered at that these works soon came to be viewed 
as an authority. But although the writings of Vitruvius, 
and laws of architecture based on the classical monu- 
ments themselves, were considered as authoritative, still 
the traditional forms were employed in a new spirit and 
in a new manner. A striving for the picturesque is per- 
ceptible amidst the massiveness of the new style. At 
first this tendency was confined within discreet bounds, 
but after the first twenty years of the sixteenth century 
it was extended to an undue degree. 

160. The Pitti palace, which was constructed by 
Brunelleschi, may be considered as the lasting type of 
the Florentine Renaissance style, at least as far as the 
architecture of palaces is concerned. These palaces (as is 
shown by Figs. 149 and 150) are constructed in rustic- 
work, that is to say, of large blocks of stone with broad 
joints, of which, during the early period, only the 
splayed or rounded beds and joints were dressed, but at 
a later epoch these ashlar-blocks were more elegantly 
treated, and rustication was of more frequent occurrence. 
The effect of this bulky rustic-work is considerably 
heightened by its advancing prominently before the line 
of the facade J indeed this projection is often to the ex- 



250 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 



tent of from a half to a whole foot. The facade, which 
thus obtains an appearance of great solidity (Fig. 148), 
is terminated by a very massive and widely projecting 
cornice supported by consoles, and is pierced by windows 
with semi-circular heads and deeply-moulded architraves. 
The windows constitute a space which, being kept plain, 
forms a pleasing contrast with the heavy appearance of 




Fig. 148. STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. 



the whole facade and a far from unharmonious effect 
being thereby produced, the building seems to be relieved 
and animated. The windows are divided by a small shaft 
into two halves, after the medieval fashion, and these 
are both spanned by a semicircle over the impost of the 
arch of the whole window. Between these two small 
semicircles and the main arch of the window there is 
generally inserted a circle, at the sides of which are 
formed small triangular panels, which are sometimes 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



251 



pierced with tracery work, or occupied with an enrich- 
ment of foliage, whilst at others the panels are left near- 
ly plain. 




Pig. 149. RICCARDI PAL.ACE AT FLORENCE. 



An expression of great massiveness is the main char- 
acteristic of this Florentine style, which was principally 
applied in the architecture of the palaces. The farms 



252 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

which were borrowed from the Roman columnar con- 
struction do not in this style, as they do more or less in 
the other style of the Renaissance, constitute a pseudo- 
architecture. The massiveness, however, of the Florentine 
palaces conveys rather the notion of a fortress than of 
the mansion of a wealthy nobleman, and this impression 
is increased by the smallness of the windows in com- 
parison with the rest of the building. This is especially 
the case with those facades which are entirely construct- 
ed of considerably projecting ashlar of irregular size, 
and to a less degree in the case of those the lowest story 
of which alone displays these large undressed blocks 
(Fig. 149). 

Those palaces which like the back of the Strozzi Palac(3 
(Fig. 150), are constructed of dressed blocks with a less 
decided projection, present a more elegant appearance. 

161. The Florentine palaces which have just been 
alluded to are, generally speaking, less suitable than all 
other varieties of the Renaissance style for reproduction 
and imitation in the mansions and dwelling-houses of our 
aristocracy and citizens. At any rate important modi- 
fications would have to be carried out, such as a toning 
down of the too prominent masonry blocks, and the total 
avoidance of that roughness which must necessarily en- 
sue from the employment of blocks of unequal size and 
arranged after an irregular fashion. 

There exist, however, a few Florentine palaces of a 
smaller type, which externally present a more habitable 
appearance. In these rustic-work is not the all-important 
feature, but it is only employed for the quoins of the 
facade, though it sometimes extends to the whole of the 
ground-floor. The roof, which projects very consider- 
ably, and shows the wooden construction, is not in ac- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



253 




Fig. 150. STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. 



256 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



the case of the Gondi Palace, which was constructed by 
San Gallo. 

During the early period of the Florentine Renaissance 
the simple basilica shape was generally chosen for 
churches of San Lorenzo and San Spirito were con- 
structed in this style at Brunelleschi ; but subsequently, 




Fig. 153. VENDRAMIN PALACE AT VENICE, BY PIETRO 
LOMBARDO. 



as elsewhere in Italy, the Roman vaulted forms, after 
the model of St. Peter's, in conjunction with the domical 
construction, were universally employed, even in the case 
of small churches. 

163. The Venetian Renaissance style first sprang into 
existence towards the end of the fifteenth century, and 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 257 

flourished till the close of the sixteenth. This style, liko 
the Florentine, comprises various shades of difference, 
and is principally remarkable in connection with the 
architecture of palaces. The arrangement remains sim- 
ilar to the ancient Venetian system, as far as regards the 
internal distribution of spaces and the division of the 
facade into main groups, whilst the individual details, 
as, for instance, the columns and arches, are constructed 
in accordance with the Roman system. Whilst the Flor- 
entine palaces present an imposing appearance, by their 
simple massiveness, and strike the beholder as severe and 
gloomy, the Venetian palaces, on the other hand, offer a 
striking contrast to the same by the elegance and rich- 
ness of their architecture. 

164. A certain originality and freedom of invention 
is perceptible in the buildings of the early period of the 
Venetian Renaissance style; the old style is happily 
blended with the new, which during this first stage is 
still imbued with Romanesque conceptions (Fig. 153). 

A method of decoration is peculiar to these buildings 
which appears to have been borrowed from Byzantine 
models. . Fine marbles of various colors, of which red 
porphyry and green serpentine are the most frequent, 
are inserted in circular and angular panels and border- 
ings, and form a sort of mosaic-work. This style of or- 
namentation is employed both in churches and palaces, 
and gives a peculiarly rich and elegant appearance to 
the facades. Another peculiarity which was borrowed 
from the Byzantine style consists in the employment of 
semi-circular gables, both in churches, as in the case of 
the Santa Maria dei Miracoli, and also in public palaces, 
of which the Scuola di San Marco is a brilliant example 
(Fig. 154). 



258 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

A beautifully picturesque effect is often produced in 
Venetian palaces by their effective composition, see Figs. 
153 and 155. 

165. In the fii'st or transition stage of the new style, 
that is to say, at the end of the fifteenth and beginning 




154. FACADE OF THE SCUOLA DI SAN MARCO AT VENICE ; 
NOW A HOSPITAL. 



of the sixteenth centuries, the productions of Pietro and 
Martino Lombardo are especially noteworthy (see Figs. 
153 and 154). A more determined imitation of Roman 
architecture is subsequently perceptible in the produc- 
tions of San Michele during the first half of the sixteenth 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



259 



century. The conceptions of this architect had a con- 
siderable influence on his contemporaries and successors, 
and display a certain independence and originality (Fig. 
155) . Next in order are the productions of Jacopo Tatti, 
or Sansovino, who was born in 1479, and died in 1570'. 




Fig. 155. GRIMANI PALACE AT VENICE, BY SAN MICHELE. 



This architect was educated in the Florentine school, and 
afterwards proceeded to Rome ; his masterpieces are less 
powerful and imposing, but on the other hand are more 
graceful, and display more richly developed details than 
those of San Michele (see Fig. 156). In these buildings, 
as well as in the Vendramin Palace by Pietro Lombardo 



260 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 





156. THE OLD LIBRARY OF ST. MARK AT VENICE, BY 
SANSOVINO. 



which belongs to the first period, the different stories of 
the facade are ornamented by orders of half or three- 
quarter columns, which are placed at the sides of the 
opening's, which themselves have semi-circular heads, and 
the facade is consequently less stiff and heavy than it 



EASY LESSONS IN AKCHITECTURE 



261 



appears in instances where Roman architecture was more 
strictly and decisively employed. 

165. Another modification of the style which con- 
formed more closely to the Roman models and to the pre- 
cepts of Yitruvius than the architecture which has been 
mentioned in the preceding paragraph, was shortly 




Fig. 157. PALACE AT VICENZA, BY PALLADIO. 



afterwards introduced by Palladio. It is consequently 
only in a local point of view that it can be designated as 
Venetian, because as r-egards style it falls under the cate- 
gory of the Roman Renaissance. Palladio, who became the 
special champion of this style of architecture, was born 
at Vicenza in 1518, and died in 1580. He was undoubted- 
ly a man of great talent, and, after Michel- Angelo, exer- 
cised, perhaps, more influence than anyone else on ar- 



262 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



ehitecture. Still the introduction of great confusion of 
ideas is attributable to this architect, for he adorned 
buildings of every kind and of most varied purposes and 




Fig. 158. HALF OF THE FACADE OF A PALACE AT VICENZA, 
BY PALLADIO. 

arrangement with classical temple portals, without tak- 
ing into consideration their object or the requirements of 
the building as a whole, so that the order was frequently 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 263 

carried up through several stories without any reference 
to its arrangement. But although these reproductions of 
columns and the employment of pilasters were meaning- 




Fig. 159. ST. SAVIOUR'S, VENICE, BY PALLADIO. 

less in themselves, they served, in a merely decorative 
point of view, to give a striking appearance to the hpi-'^^- 
ings (Fig. 157). 

The lower story of palaces built by Palladio, th-^ 
greater part of which are at Vicenza, is generally of rus- 



264 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



tic work, whilst the upper stories have pilasters or a 
colonnade ; occasionally, however, pilasters or arcades 
are introduced on the gTOund-floor (Fig. 158). 

More than one cause served to render the compositions 
of Palladio so celebrated. He possessed an especial felic 
ity in the arrangement of his ground-plans, particularly 
in instances where he had an unlimited space at his dis- 
posal. His command, moreover, of good proportion, ren- 




Fig 160. VILLA, BY PALLADIO. 



dered his combinations of civic and sacred buildings 
most pleasing to the eye; whilst the columnar arrange- 
ment of his entrances conveyed an agreeable, and at the 
same time dignified, impression (Figs. 159 and 160). 
Consequently the works of Palladio, although often com- 
posed of heterogeneous elements, remained for a long 
period the model for an entire style; and even in the 
eighteenth century, when the total deterioration of 
architecture, as exemplified in what is called by the 
Germans "the Zopf-und-Perriicken Styl" (pigtail and 
periwig style), led architects again in the direction of 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 265 

the classical, the designs of Palladio became anew a sub- 
ject of study. Even in the present day they are often 
immoderately praised by those who are not really con- 
versant with the principles and requirements of art, and 
who are ignorant of the history of the development of 
architecture. 




Fig. 161. THE DELLA SALUTE CHURCH AND CUSTOM HOUSE. 

The most noteworthy of the successors of Palladio at 
Venice were Scamozzi, and Longhena, the architect of 
the Delia Salute church (Fig. 161). 

Some of the churches of this style retain the Byzantine 
system of the Greek cross with barrel-vaultings and a 
central dome resting on four pillars or piers. Others, 



266 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



again, have the form of the basilica, but with a system of 
vaulting of their own, which produces a beautiful ef- 
fect. This system consists of a series of large domes in 
the nave, and of smaller domes in the aisles, all resting 
on pierced masses of masonry with barrel-vaultings con- 
nected with them, as, for instance, San Salvatore. 




Fig. 162. FACADE OF A PALACE OF ROUGH BRICK AT BOLOGNA. 



166, Owing to the rarity and expensiveness of free 
stone in Upper Italy, an architectural style in brick was 
developed side-by-side with that which has just been 
touched upon. This material had already been employed 



EAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 267 

in the foregoing period for churches, and it now came in- 
to frequent use in the construction of the palaces. Bo- 
logna is especially rich in palaces of this description, 
which, with an admixture of earlier forms, belongs for 
the most part to the Early E-enaissance, with semicircles 
for the heads of the openings, as was necessitated by the 
character of the material (Fig. 162). The easy multipli- 
cation of the ornamental parts in burnt clay, generally 
led to an undue increase of the decorative element. In- 
asmuch as the main streets of Bologna have arcades run- 
ning along them of which the individual palaces only 
embrace a portion, these buildings do not present the 
appearance of being totally detached, but seem rather 
parts of the entire front of the street, and show much 
similarity in the architecture of their facades with that 
of the arcades themselves. 

167. The Ex)man Renaissance style. The Roman 
Renaissance style displays likewise several variations or 
shades of difference, although the diversities are not so 
striking as in the Venetian. Whilst the intellectual ten- 
dency which caused and fostered the Renaissance in 
Italy owed its origin mainly to Florence, and was culti- 
vated in that town and in Upper Italy, Rome was suffer- 
ing under very unfavorable circumstances. Brunelleschi, 
Alberti, Michelozzo, Benedetto da ]\Iajano, Cronaca, 
Sansovino, and others who, feeling the power and worth 
of the ancient monuments of Rome, began to make a 
study of them, and thus gave an impulse to the resuscita- 
tion of Roman architecture, were no Roman artists. It 
was only when the poetic breath of the first inspiration 
had vanished that Rome began definitely to play its own 
part in the Renaissance, and to mark out and limit the 
manifold variations which had been brought about by 



268 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

the most prominent architects of the different schools. 
The first and most important school of the Roman 
Renaissance was originated by Donato Lazzari, known 
under the name of Bramantc (1444 to 1514) ; this was 
joined by Balthazar Peruzzi and Antonio di Sangallo; 
another school was represented by Giacomo Barozzio, 
known as Vignola (1507 to 1573), whilst a third was di- 
rected by Michel- Angelo Buonarotti (1474 to 1564), and 
by its arbitrary character formed a stepping-stone to the 
Rococo style which succeeded it. 

It was the productions of the above-mentioned archi- 
tects, as well as those of some others of note, which main- 
ly determined the future course of the Roman Renais- 
sance style, and that not for Rome only, but for all 
countries; for the palaces and churches of Rome came 
gradually to be regarded as models, and the Roman 
Renaissance style was extended over the whole civilized 
world both during the period of its prime and that ol: 
iis deterioration. 

Except during the period of transition, the Rr.man 
monuments and the rules gathered from the writings 
of Vitruvius, were in general adhered to. When, how- 
ever, the antique forms did not suit the buildings which 
new requirements and customs necessitated, an arbi- 
trary deviation was considered permissible, without the 
rules in question being totally abandoned. A dry 
method of treatment is the result, which contrasts un- 
favorably with the freer and more poetic transition 
period from the Romanesque to the Classical style. 

At the period of the earliest development of the Ro- 
man Renaissance, free treatment, after the Romanesque 
method, is exhibited in a much less degree than in the 
Florentine and Venetian styles; but on the other hand 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



269 



the Roman Renaissance was from the commencement 
much more correct as regards its conformity to the ideas 
of ancient Roman architecture. 

168. The productions of Bramante himself, who was 
the first Roman architect of note, display two different 
tendencies, of which the earlier, having its origin in 




Fig. 163. PART OF THEI FACADE OF THE CANCELLBRIA AT 
ROME. 



Upper Italy, exhibits more originality together with 
Romanesque proclivities, as for instance the Choir of 
the Church of S. Maria delle Grazie at Milan; whilst 
the later is more strictly in conformity with the an- 
tique; a result which was brought about by the archi- 



270 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



tect's study of ancient Roman monuments. The most 
remarkable productions of Bramante at Rome are the 
Cancelleria Palace (Fig. 163), with the Church of San 
Lorenzo in Daaso contained within its precincts, the 
Giraud Palace, now the Torlonia (Fig. 164 and Fig. 
165 with details of the same), and the Court of the 
Vatican, with the celebrated Loggie, decorated by Ra- 
phael. Bramante also drew the plan of St. Peter's, 




Fig. 164. GIRAUD PALACE AT ROME. 



which was afterwards subjected to so many alterations. 
According to the original design, the church was to 
have been constructed in the form of a Greek cross, 
with each of the four ends terminating in a semi-circle, 
and with a central dome. In the severer forms of this 
architect's productions a poverty and insipidity is al- 
ready discernible, which contrasts strongly with the 
more imaginative and poetic treatment of other struc- 
tures which are remarkable for their gracefulness. A 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



271 



want of power in details is one of the most conspicuous 
of Bramante's failings, and this of course is more no- 
ticeable in his later productions, when ancient Roman 
models were his study, than in his earlier works. 




Fig. 165. DETAILS OF Fig. 164 ON AN ENLARGED SCALE. 

169. The pupils of Bramante and other renowned 
architects pursued the path which he had marked out; 
as, for example, Balthazar Peruzzi (1481 to 1536, Fig. 
166) ; as the principal of his works may be mentioned 



272 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



the Farnesina at Rome : Ant. cli Sangallo of Florence 
(died 1546), whose principal work in the Farnese 
Palace at Rome (see Fig. 167, and parts of the same 
on an enlarged scale in Figs. 168, 169, 170). The 
third story of this palace is, however, the work of 
Michel- Angelo. The Farnese Palace forms to a certain 




Fig. 166. SMALL PALACE AT ROME, BY BALTHAAZAR PERUZZI. 



extent the type of a distinct class in the architecture 
of Roman palaces, and its chief characteristics is, that 
the facades are not divided by any orders of columns 
or pilasters, as for instance in Fig. 166 ; but the same 
etfect and impressions are produced by the architraves, 
cornices, and plinths of the windows, which invariably 
have rectilineal terminations, as well as the doors, and 
also by the string-courses which divide the stories, and 
by a far-projecting cornice : at the same time especial 
consideration is devoted to the effect of good propor- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 273 

tions. Ornaments are but sparingly introdnced; whilst, 
on the other hand, the corners are generally marked by 
rustications. 

These palaces convey the impression of solidity with- 
out cumbersomeness, of richness without luxury, and 
above all, of simplicity in conjunction with dignity. 

In the constructions of Bramante's nephew and pupil, 
the celebrated painter, Raphael Sanzio (1483 to 1520), 
there is perceptible a certain tendency towards pic- 




Fig.- 167. FARNESE PALACE AT ROME. 

turesque effect and attention to detail ; this is evidenced 
in the palaces built by him at Rome, and especially 
in those at Florence: but this tendency is displayed 
with more freedom in the works of Raphael's pupil, 
Giulio Romano (1492 to 1546), who, amongst other 
works, was the architect of the Villa Madama at Rome, 
and the Palace Del Te at Mantua. 

170. Another school, which displays a still stricter 
imitation of classical forms than that of which Bra- 
mante was the founder, was represented and advocated 
by Giacomo Barozzio, who is known under the name of 



274 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




H 






tSfMt^ 



Fig. 169. CORNICE OF Fig. 167 
ON AN ENLARGED SCALE. 




Fig. 170. "W^NDOW OF THE 

UPPER STORY OF THE FACADn 

OF THE FARNESE PALACE IN 

Fig. 169. 



Fig. 168. PORTION OF Fig. 169 
ON AN ENLARGED SCALE. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



275 



Vignola (1507 to 1573). This architect, by his works 
and his teaching, exercised very great influence on his 
contemporaries and successors, and the effect of his ex- 
ample is, like Palladio's, to be traced not only in the 
architectural bias of his own times, but also in the 
course of the eighteenth century. This result was 
principally brought about by means of his book on the 
five columnar orders of antiquity, and this treatise has 
been regarded as an authority down to the latest times. 
His most noteworthy construction is the Castle of 
Caparola, between Rome and Viterbo (Fig. 171). 




Fig. 171. 



CASTLE OF CAPRAROLA, BETWEEN ROME AND 
VITERBO, BY VIGNOLA. 



171. The third school was developed contemporan- 
eously with the above by Michel-Angelo Buonarotti 
(1474 to 1564). This great genius had extraordinary 
and excessive views, and could not consequently accom- 
modate himself without reservation, as his contempo- 
raries did, to the principles and rules which had already 



276 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



277 



found universal acceptation. His manner, therefore, of 
treating architectural forms savored of arbitrariness 




Fig. 173. BACK VIEW OF ST. PETER'S, ROME. 



rather than of conformity with constructive and aes- 
thetic principles, and aimed more at picturesqueness of 
effect than at strictness of style. 



278 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Michel-Angelo assumed such a considerable and 
prominent position by his genius and authority, that his 
example necessarily entailed imitation and produced ef- 
fects on subsequent times. Wlien his deviations were 
moderate, they were considered by his imitators merely 
as marks of the originality of his wonderful talent, and 
by this means proved stepping-stones to the degenera- 
tion which marked the ensuing period of the Rococo 
style. Amongst his architectural works, the design of 
the Capitol at Rome, with its wings (Fig. 172), may 
be considered as the most pleasing, whilst as a testi- 
mony to his lofty genius the mighty and glorious dome 
of St. Peter's at Rome (Figs. 173 and 174), and which 
has no rival in the world, must be adduced as a striking 
instance. This dome was only completed after Michel- 
Angelo 's death. Both as regards its colossal dimen- 
sions, as well as its beautiful proportions and lines, it 
produces, bcth internally and externally, a most wonder- 
ful impression. It shovild be remarked that Michel- 
Angelo, like Bramante before him, selected the form of 
the Greek cross for his church, and planned the dome 
accordingly, and that the nave, which is by Carlo 
Maderno, is, both externally and internally, prejudicial 
to the effect of the dome (see Fig. 175). 

172. Though the individual productions of the above- 
mentioned architects naturally differed from each other, 
yet the palaces of the Roman Renaissance have this in 
common, that they all convey the impression of marked 
dignity and of size in conjunction with simplicity. The 
most important of the causes that conduce to this re- 
sult are the proportions and large dimensions. The 
mouldings and other architectural details are clearly de- 
fined, but not so prominent as in the Florentine palaces, 



I 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



279 




Fig. 174. SECTION OP THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S, ROME. 

and for the most part traced upon purely classical 
Roman principles. This remark is applicable to the 
earlier period of the Renaissance, for in the later period 
the bent, broken, and twisted forms which occur, es- 



280 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

pecially in the jambs of windows and their pediments, 
differ entirely from those of antiquity. But the palaces 
which belong to the good period of the Renaissance 



Fig. 175. GROUND-PLAN OF ST. PETER'S, ROME. 

are, in fact, isolated examples, as the above-mentioned 
buildings by Bramante, Balthazar Peruzzi, and some 
others. The Farnese Palace, by Antonio Sangallo, which 
is the most imposing in Rome, must be considered as 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 281 

a solitary exception to this rule. This palace would 
represent the Roman palatial style in the most com- 
plete manner Avere it not for the fact that the third 
story, which was designed by Michel-Angelo, detracts 
so greatly from the facade by its windows, which are 
in the Eococo style, and do not at all suit the others, 
that the harmonious unity of the whole is seriously im- 
paired. The desire of novelty, and the abandonment 
of traditional laws, have, in this instance, clearly given 
rise to a fault. Not only is it open to censure that the 
semi-circular heads to some of the windows lack uni- 
formity Avith the rest of the building, in which hori- 
zontal lines are predominant, but even the treatment of 
their architraves, etc., is very ill-judged, mainly owing 
to the fact that through a deficiency in height the arches 
of the windows have been carried up to the hori- 
zontal line of the pediments, and that consequently the 
horizontal architrave and frieze of the window entab- 
lature had to be abandoned (see Fig. 170). The worst 
of the characteristic mistakes of the decadence of an- 
cient Roman architecture are, moreover, here introduced 
anew, namely, the introduction of columns which do 
not rest on the ground, but which are supported by 
brackets, and which support architraves with a profile 
which coincides with that displayed by the debased pro- 
file of the decadence architecture. 

Fig. 176 presents a type of the majority of the palaces 
of the Roman Renaissance style, at least so far as regards 
the architectural features and their arrangement ; for the 
most important palaces in this style are both more im- 
posing by their great length, whilst at the same time 
they are less simple and less correct in their details. 

The Roman palaces are for the most part without any 



282 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



important sculptural accessories, and without ornamen- 
tation, unless an exception be made as regards the 
decorated mouldings of the cornice, which is generally 
Corinthian: such enrichments are usually ovoli, den- 
tils, and consoles. It is the very simplicity of the 
Roman palaces, in conjunction with their vast dimen- 
sions, which gives the impression of dignity. If this 




Fig. 176. VEROSPI PALACE AT ROME. 



style is applied to our modern dwellings with their 
curtailed dimensions, more ornamentation is requisite 
than was the case with the vast Roman palaces, for 
otherwise the impression would be feeble and uninterest- 
ing as soon as the effect produced by the extent of the 
structure was wanting. 

173. The vestibules are generally spacious, but still 
they do not produce the impression which is conveyed 
by a richer style of architecture. A more pleasing ef- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARC.HITECTUKE 



283 



feet might have been attained by the employment of 
columns where now heavy pilasters support the vaults of 
the vestibule. The arrangement, however, of the vesti- 
bules and courts is carried out with some view to pic- 
turesque effect: sometimes there are colonnades, while 
at others they are wanting; niches with statues are 
introduced opposite the entrance; whilst a fountain at 
the background of the first court, or still more effec- 
tively at that of the second, is seldom wanting. The 
perspective effect is naturally increased by these courts. 
It is rarely that the staircase is included in the first 




Fig. 177. 



PLAN OF THE TURSI-DORIA PALACE AT GENOA. 



coup d'ceil, it is usually placed at the side, and behind 
a gallery. The remaining space of the ground-floor is 
generally taken up with stables and coach-houses and 
other subordinate appliances. The rooms which are 
used for ordinary or state purposes are on the first 
floor, whilst the second floor is appropriated to the same 
purpose, and between or below is the entre-sol, or mez- 
zanine, which generally has windows of a square shape. 
174. The buildings of the sixteenth century at Genoa 
form a distinct species of the Modern Roman style, 
mainly owing to the fact that they were designed by 



284 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 











ir-^i^iii 






Fig. 178. HALF OF THE FACADE OF A PALACE AT GENOA. 



one single artist, Galeazzo Alesso (1500-1572). They are 
large palaces, which bear an independent character and 
differ from those of other towns, especially in the ar- 
rangement of the interior. The uneven and circum- 
scribed nature of the ground on which they are built 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



285 



is mainly conducive to this, and picturesque and im- 
posing effects are skillfully produced by the arrange- 
ment of the vestibules, halls, and steps (Fig. 177). In 
this respect the palaces of Genoa are unrivalled, for the 
Florentine palaces, as well as the Venetian, are entirely 
wanting in such vestibules. At Rome, on the other 
hand, where the palaces were not restricted by want 
of ground, and where the vestibules and courts assume 
-even larger dimensions than at Genoa, no such pic- 
turesque effects of light and perspective are produced 
as, in the latter city, rise from the architecture itself, 
and from effects of perspective and light and shade. 




Fig. 179. FACADE OF THE TURSI-DORIA PALACE AT GENOA. 



The purity of style, however, of the Genoese palaces 
is not so great as in the Roman, particularly as re- 
gards the heavy, ungraceful forms of details. This is 
shown by Figs. 178 and 179, and there are other in- 
stances in which the faults are more marked than in the 
palaces in question. The palaces of Genoa may, how- 
ever, be favorably contrasted with the Roman as re- 
gards height; for the ground-floor and the mezzanine 
are raised considerably, in order to gain more light and 



286 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 180. PAINTED VAULT OF THE FLORENTINE PALACE IN 
ROME. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



287 




288 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



a better view from the main story. Owing, however, 
to the extreme narrowness of the streets and the conse- 
quent difficulty in obtaining a satisfactory point of view, 
the object is not obtained to the desired degree. 

175. The decoration of the interiors of the build- 
ings of the Renaissance is also copied from ancient Ro- 
man architecture. The rooms are either vaulted or have 
flat ceilings, but in both cases they are adorned with 
paintings after the manner of those discovered in the 
Baths of Titus, as is shown in Fig. 180, or by panel- 



:?ife 




Fig. 182. CAPITAL OF A PILASTER FROM VENICE. 



w^ork, that is, sunken coffers with a regularly distributed 
enrichment (Fig. 181). These panels are themselves 
often adorned with historical or allegorical paintings, 
or with arabesques. Ornamented panels were employed 
in large palaces for horizontal ceilings, as also in 
churches, though in the latter case they were more often 
applied to cupola vaultings, as notably in St. Peter's 
(Fig. 181). 

Amongst ether details, a type of composite capital 
is worthy of notice, because it is of very frequent oc- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



289 



eurrence, with but very slight modifications (Figs. 181, 
182, 183). During the later period of the Renaissance 
style a very extensive application of a kind of carved 
scutcheon was prevalent ; the ends were generally rolled 
up in imitation of parchment (Figs. 185 and 186). 

176, When the monuments of Roman antiquity be- 
came a subject of study at the commencement of the 
era of the Renaissance, the belief was entertained that 
the architecture of bygone days was to be invested with 




Fig. 183. CAPITAL OF A PILLAR FROM FLORENCE. 



a new lease of life. But the organism of the Classic 
style did not provide for every modern requirement, 
and for buildings of several stories, the only types 
which were available were the Roman theaters and 
amphitheaters, and the then existing Septizonium of 
Severus: the temples had to serve as models for halls, 
whilst the triumphal arches were taken as copies for 
other public buildings, and for the interior vaults the 
baths were employed as a pattern. Consequently, 
the early Renaissance style bears an essentially 



290 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



decorative character, inasmuch as it employed the in- 
dividual forms of ancient architecture after adapting 
them to the creations of modern times, not as construe- 




1 


HI 




mm 


s 



Fig. 185. 




Fig. 186. 

ORNAMENTATION PECULIAR TO 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 
Fig. 184. PORTION OF A STYLE. 

DECORATED PILASTER WITH 
CAPITAL, IN THE CHURCH OE^ 
SANTA MARIA DEI MIRACULI AT 
VENICE. 

tive but rather as decorative elements, which, however, 
the Renaissance endeavored to reproduce in a manner 
that was at the same time regular and noble. When 
the awakened perception of the beauties of Grecian and 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 291 

Roman buildings led to the resumption of the horizontal 
architrave instead of the pointed arch, the grotesque 
treatment of the pointed, angular, and swelling foliage 
which was employed in the capitals and friezes of the 
Gothic style, had to give place to the acanthus leaf and 
other more graceful forms of ornament. When the 
gloomy spirit of the Middle Ages was forced to vanish 
before the new zeal for classical studies and the de- 
light which they occasioned, the whole appearance of 
buildings, in their totality as well as in their details, 
seemed to be brightened up, and to be imbued with that 
spirit of regeneration which permeated at the same time 
through social life. 

177. The above-mentioned development of the dec- 
orative element of the Eenaissance style took place es- 
pecially in interiors, and sculpture and painting, the 
sister arts of architecture, working harmoniously to- 
gether, produced most excellent results. The walls and 
ceilings were covered with paintings, whilst a method 
of colored decoration, which came into vogue in con- 
sequence of the excavation of the Baths of Titus, was 
very generally employed. This consists of objects taken 
from the vegetable kingdom blended in a fantastic man- 
ner with figures of men and animals, of masks, of ves- 
sels, of shields, and even of entire pictures; and com- 
bined with the architectural details of the building, and 
in conjunction with statuary. The whole forms one of 
the most praiseworthy features of the Renaissance, and 
the celebrated Loggie of Raphael are instances of this 
mode of treatment (Fig. 187). The decorative paint- 
ings of Raphael's pupil, Giulio Romano, and of many 
others, are likewise remarkable. The Gothic method 
of ornamentation with its mere combinations of lines 



292 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 187. WALL-PIECE PROM THE LOGGIE OF RAPHAEL AT 
ROME. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 293 

and perpetually recurring borderings and panel-work 
seems tame and insipid beside the bright and graceful 
decoration of the Eenaissance, in which such ample 
scope was allowed to the play of the fancy. 

178. Besides the walls and ceilings of the interior, 
the fagades were frequently decorated with sculptured 
figures, and the flat spaces between the windows and 
mouldings underwent ornamentation. This took place 
either by a manner of painting called sgraffito,, in which 
the undercoating was black, with a thin surface-coating 
of white laid over it, and then the design or shading 
was engraved or scraped away down to the black 
grounding; or similar designs were executed in bas-re- 
lief, as is shown by Fig. 188, whilst Fig. 183 repre- 
sents part of a facade painted in sgraffito. 

179. During the flourishing period of the Renais- 
sance, architecture showed less hankering after mere 
richness of detail, and strove rather after noble sim- 
plicity: and this tendency was exhibited even in in- 
teriors, although in a modified degree. This flourish- 
ing period lasted scarcely fifty years, and occurred at 
the middle of the sixteenth century, and during its 
prevalence decoration was kept within due bounds, and 
in harmony with the principal forms. At the same 
time it cannot be denied that a certain architectural 
beauty, or at least a pleasant effect, was often produced 
in the later period of the Renaissance when the decora- 
tion was no longer so well regulated and when the de- 
tails were not in such strict accordance with the main 
object of the design. 

180. Whilst the Florentine and the Venetian Renais- 
sance styles remained, with trifling exceptions, confined 
to their respective districts, the Roman Renaissance 



294 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 188. PART OF THE FACADE OF 
THE SPADA PALACE AT ROME. 



Fig. 189. PART OF A 
FACADE IN SGNAFFITO AT 
ROME. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 295 

style, as well as the Eococo style which succeeded it, ex- 
tended over all Western Europe. The adoption of this 
style, however, took place later than in Italy itself, where 
the Pointed style had never gained such a firm hold as 
in other countries. The first influence upon the later 
developments of this style of the Italian or Renaissance 
manner is, perceptible in a return to horizontal lines 
with the flat and the semi-circular arch, particularly 
in secular buildings. 

This altered treatment of the Pointed style during 
the last period of its employment forms the only transi- 
tion which took place to the Italian Renaissance style. 
In Germany, this latter is called simply "the Italian 
style." There is, properly speaking, no transition style, 
as in Italy; but the Renaissance style was at once ac- 
cepted as a complete and developed one, and adopted 
with the principles which prevailed in the land of its 
birth. It is only in France, where it was introduced 
somev/hat earler than elsewhere, that many buildings 
exhibit a free treatment Avitli reminiscences of the Ro- 
manesque style. 

The alterations and modifications which the Renais- 
sance style underwent in Italy were carefully copied in 
the countries in which it prevailed. It was, moreover, 
precisely at the epoch of its greatest deterioration that 
this style was most extensively employed in non-Italian 
countries. 

No characteristic national features and no local points 
of difference are therefore to be sought for in the build- 
ings of the various countries, except in those subtle 
shades of variety which owe their origin to the higher or 
lower gesthetie development and artistic status of these 
countries. 



296 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 297 

181. The artistic influence of Italy came into opera- 
tion in France sooner than in other European countries, 
for as early as the fifteenth century the Renaissance 
style was introduced there by Italian architects, as, for 
instance, by Fra Giocondo, who was summoned thither 
by Louis XII. But at that epoch the Flamboyant style 
was still in its vigor, and the buildings then erected could 
not extricate themselves from its influence. The eon- 
sequence was that a blending of the two styles tempo- 
rarily prevailed, as, for instance, in the Chateau de Gail- 
Ion, which was built between the years 1502 and 1510, 
part of the facade of which is preserved in the court of 
the Ecole des Beaux-arts at Paris, as well as in the 
Chateau de Blois, which Louis XII. caused to be built, 
and which has lately been restored by Duban. It was 
in these country residences of the nobility, especially on 
the banks of the Loire, that this architectural activity 
was displayed during the earlier period of the Renais- 
sance; amongst their number the Chateau de Chambord 
(Fig. 190) is most worthy of notice. The pilasters and 
the mouldings of the Renaissance style were, it is true, 
somewhat rudely carried out, and in the earlier period 
were combined with certain elements of the Flamboyant 
style. Highly ornamental gables and dormer-windows, 
especially, were executed in the latter style. Buildings 
were~ contemporaneously constructed entirely in the 
Flamboyant style, as, for instance, the Cathedral, the 
Palais de Justice, and the Hotel Bourgtheroulde, aU at 
Rouen, and the Hotel de Ville at Compiegne. 

The Italian Renaissance had, as has been shown, to 
struggle with the Flamboyant style during the reign of 
Louis XII. It made, however, decisive progress under 
Francis I., who summoned Serlio and other Italian ar- 



298 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



chitects from their native countr;^ (1515-1547), and 
under hh successor, Henry II, From that time forward 
the ancient columnar orders were universally substituted 
for the architectural features which had hitherto pre- 
vailed, as, for instance, in the Hotel de Ville at Paris, 
which was built by Domenico Cortana in 1533. It must, 
however, be remarked that the Italian architects who 
were resident in France modified their ideas, consciously 
or unconsciously, to suit the French taste. A style 




Fig. 191. SECTION OF THE INNER FACADE OF THE LOUVRE. 



was thereby produced which may be called French or 
Italian, according as the proclivities and influence of the 
one or the other nation predominated. After the period 
of Philibert Delorme, who completed the chapel of the 
Chateau d'Anet in the Renaissance style in the year 
1552, the Grothic style was, as a rule, abandoned, in 
spite of the opposition of many French architects, who 
struggled against the foreign style of architecture at 
Beauvis as late as 1555. At tli« same time the general 



EASY LESSONS IN .ARCHITECTURE 299 

arrangement of the Gothic churches was retained, and 
it was only the Renaissance system of decoration which 
was substituted for the Gothic : the ground-plan, the 
proportions, and the whole structure with its flying, 
buttresses, pinnacles, clustered columns, deeply recessed 
portals, etc., is borrowed from the pointed style, and it 
was only in the details and in the ornamentation that 
the Renaissance was followed. The Church of St. Eu- 
staehe at Paris and the Church at Gisors are instances 
of this architectural phase. 

The three prominent architects, Pierre Lescot (1510- 
1578), who designed the celebrated Western Facade of 
the Louvre (Fig. 191 and a portion of the same on a 
larger scale), Philibert Delorme and Jean Buillant, who 
was the architect of the earlier portions of the Tuileries 
(Fig. 193), and of the Chateau d'Ecouen, exerted such 
an influence over the architecture of their native coun- 
try that the Italian Renaissance Style became thence- 
forvv^ard the predominant one in France. The above- 
mentioned chateau gradually assumed a typical char- 
acter. The facade of the Louvre is, however, essentially 
French in contradiction to Italian, and this is especially 
noticeable in the ornamentation. Jean Goujon and Paul 
Ponce executed for this facade the best sculptures which 
marked the Renaissance in France. Under these joint 
influences an elevation was produced in which rich- 
ness is perceptible without excess, and symmetry is at- 
tained without stiffness; in fact, a design in which 
aesthetic laws are fully considered, and the details har- 
moniously, if not magnificently, executed. Although the 
French architects who flourished in the reign of Francis 
L inclined towards the Italian style of the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries, and especially to that of Bramante, 



300 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 192. PART OF THE INNER FACADE OP THE LOUVRE AT 
PARIS. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



301 



yet they succeeded in imparting a peculiar grace to that 
style, as it was developed in France, which neverthe- 
less vanished towards the end of the sixteenth century. 
At the same time, however, it must be admitted that the 
French Eenaissance Style cannot for a moment be com- 
pared with the Italian during its palmy period, either as 
regards purity or novelty of design. 




Fig. 193. PART OF THE OLDEST FACADE OF THE TUILERIES. 



182. Little by little a method of ornamentation w^s 
introduced by successive decorators and architects, 
which was eminently suited to the French taste. An- 
drouet Du Cerceau and Jean Lepautre are especially 
noticeable as representatives of this school of embell- 
ishment. The sumptuous Apollo Gallery in the Louvre 
is a characteristic example of the productions of the 



302 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 194. FRAGMENTS FROM THE APOLLO GALLERY IN THE 
LGIA^RB AT PARIS. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 303 

latter. Fig. 582 exhibits a portion of the system of 
decoration which pervades the whole gallery. 

Du Cerceau, who flourished during the reign of 
Henry IV., connected the block of buildings which be- 
longed to the Louvre, and had been constructed under 
Catherine dei Medici, by a gallery with the Tuileries 
(Fig, 195). This architect abandoned the characteris- 
tic feature of the French Renaissance, which had pre- 




Fig. 195. THE FLORE PAVILION AND PART OF THE GALLERY 
OF THE LOUVRE, BEFORE THE MODERN RECONSTRUCTION 
OF THE FACADE. 



vailed hitherto, namely, of giving its peculiar columnar 
order to each story, and assimilated his designs to those 
of the late Roman Renaissance, in which a striking effect 
was produced at the expense of truth by continuous 
columns and pilasters extending over several stories and 
rows of windows. 



304 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Although Du Cerceau was obliged to leave France in 
the year 1604, the impulse which he had given in the 
direction of the afore mentioned manner led to its being 
generally adopted. The new buildings were more cor- 




Pig. 196. PART OF A FACADE IN THE PLACE ROYALE AT PARIS. 



rect, but less picturesque than those built during the 
earlier period of the French Eenaissance, and a cer- 
tain insipidity seems to characterize the various struc- 
tures erected during the reigns of Henry IV., and es- 
pecially Louis XIII. As is shown by Fig. 196, a com- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 305 

bination of free-stone and brick was resorted to in such 
a way that the former was employed for the mould- 
ings, and for the quoins and dressings of the doors and 
windows, whilst brick was used for the spaces between. 
In the case of the windows the free-stone introduced as- 
sumed the form of quoins. If ornamentation had been 
previously excessive, it now retired into the background, 
and was only employed in moderation ; and the method 
of its treatment began to be distinguished from that of 
the former period. The forms of tht details above all 
began to lose in purity: rustications were inappro- 
priately introduced in the walls and columns, and the 
roofs were made high and steep, which gave the rest 
of the building a heavy and squat appearance, whilst 
the numerous turret-shaped chimneys, which were ne- 
cessitated by these high roofs, formed a peculiar feature 
in the construction. The Rococo, or Baroque Style, 
which forms a subject of itself, was beginning at 
the same time to exert its influence. Commencing 
from the second half of the seventeenth century, this 
new architectural deviation became prevalent in all 
civilized countries, owing to the splendor and influence 
of the French power and manners, and the influence 
of Italian art was consequently paralyzed. Fig. 197 
gives a -characteristic example of the French archi- 
tecture of this period of the Later Renaissance, showing 
the peculiarities which have been described above. 

At the same time that the better tendencies of the 
Renaissance period disappear in the second half of the 
seventeenth century, and the new edifices display proofs 
of a deterioration of taste, the degeneration which had 
set in continued to increase with time, as may be 
gathered from the various buildings of the reign of 



306 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Louis XIV. The natural laws of architecture were 
more and more neglected, and replaced by certain con- 
ventional rules for the application of the Roman colum- 
nar orders. Amidst all this desire for show, this mag- 
nificence and a great confusion of means, especially of 
the popular column and pilaster arrangement in large 




Pig. 197. THE CHATEAU DE BEAU MBSNIL. 



dimensions, as, for instance, the over-praised Colonnade 
of the Louvre, there is .still a certain insipidity peculiar 
to the constructions of the period. In accordance with 
the disposition of Louis XIV., architecture was for the 
future only to give expression to that proud pomp which 
characterized all the undertakings and the whole reign 
of the Grand Monarque. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



307 



The principal architectural activity of this period was 
displayed by Jules Hardouin Mansard, who was head 
architect to the king- and the head of an influential 




Pig. 198. THE INVALIDES AT PARIS. 



school, as Lenotre at the same time was principal horti- 
culturist. Mansard built the palaces of Versailles (1647- 
1708), Marly, the Grand Trianon, as also the Invalides 
at Paris (Fig. 198). 



308 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



The internal system of decoration which had been 
brought in by Lepautre was modified by Mansard and 
Berain. Mirrors were freely introduced in the embell- 




Pig. 199, PORTION OF Fig. 



ON A LARGE SCALE. 



ishment of rooms, especially in connection with the 
fireplaces, and may be said to have now become a dis- 
tinctive feature in the decoration of interiors. 

It was in the seventeenth century, contemporaneously 
with the decadence of Italy, that the domineering in- 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 309 

fluence of France on other countries began to be recog- 
nized. This result was mainly attained by the power 
and glory of Louis XIV., as well as by the brilliancy 
of his court. In many places French gardens and cas- 
tles were imitated,, and French architects were employed 
in their construction. 

On Mansard's death a considerable alteration took 
place in French architecture. An entirely new system 
of decoration arose for interiors, which is often known 
under the designation Rococo. This is somewhat dif- 
fe'rent from the Italian Rococo style which will be de- 
scribed in §§ 190 and 191, and properly belongs to that 
division of the work in which the Rococo style is dis- 
cussed, but it is inserted in this place in order to secure 
continuity, and to trace the whole course of the French 
Renaissance without interruption. 

183. It was principally the above-mentioned system 
of Rococo decoration and architectural detail which 
characterized the architecture of the time of Louis XV. ; 
it is, consequently, sometimes desigTiated as the style 
of Louis XV. Fig. 199 gives a portion of an interior 
drawn in perspective, whilst Fig. 200 depicts the entire 
wall from which this portion is taken. 

Internal arrangements and decorations are the main 
characteristics of the style of this period, and in this 
direction the best results were doubtless produced. 
Large and lofty rooms, as well as scope for display, were 
indispensable; consequently this style of embellishment 
was most happily carried out in state apartments, es- 
pecially in the princely castles and palaces, or, as the 
French call them, the "Hotels" of the aristocracy. 

De Cotte must also be mentioned as well as Berain, as 
his plans and buildings exercised considerable influence. 



310 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUEE 



and caused the princes of foreign countries to be de- 
sirous to avail themselves of his services. Indeed French 
artists were in great request at this period in Europe, 
for Paris had become the model which was thought 
worthy of imitation in other lands. 




Fig. 200. DECORATIONS OF A SMALL SALOON IN THE PALACE 
OF VERSAILLES, OF WHICH Fig. 199 GIVES A PORTION ON 
A LARGER SCALE. 



184. Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV. a 
reaction set in, which was caused partly by the excess 
and caprice displayed in the application of this style, 
and partly by the tide again setting in the direction 
of the antique. This is evinced by the Colonnades de la 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUEE 



311 



Place de Concorde, and by the Church of Ste. Genevieve, 
which was begun by Soufflot in the year 1755, and sub- 
sequently received the name of the Pantheon (Fig. 
201). From thenceforth imitations of ancient buildings 
came into vogue, as they also did in other countries. As 




Fig. 201. WEST FRONT OF THE PANTHEON AT PARIS. 



a counterpoise to the former license, a certain strict- 
ness and moderation in ornamentation was now resorted 
to, which at last almost approached deficiency. Percier 
set himself the task of correcting this false step, and suc- 
ceeded in again placing the art on a proper footing. His 



312 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

intelligence, his capability and his knowledge were very 
considerable, and in the year 1792 he opened a school, 
which must be considered as one of the most influential 
that ever existed; for the most efficient and renowned 
architects of the whole of Europe who attained reputa- 
tion during the first half of the nineteenth century 
had there acquired their knowledge of their art. The 
founder of the school himself was considered as an 
indisputable authority both under the first Empire and 
in the days of the restored Bourbons; and, in con- 
junction with Fontaine, he erected structures in the 
Roman style, amongst which may be mentioned the 
jMadeline, and the Bourse, and the triumphal arch in 
the Carousel. His numerous freely-treated decorative 
achievements in the Roman Renaissance style, in castles 
and palaces, have for half a century been regarded as 
models, and frequently imitated. 

185, The Renaissance style was not employed in 
Germany before the middle of the sixteenth century, 
and the most noteworthy instances of it are the Belve- 
dere of Ferdinand I., on the Hradschin at Prague, and 
the so-called Otto Henry buildings at Heidelberg Cas- 
tle (1556-1559). The facade of the last-mentioned struc- 
ture, of which Figs. 202 and 203 represent portions, is 
peculiar for a richness and variety of details which 
almost border on excess. At the same time a certain 
heaviness prevails, which forms a contrast to the grace- 
ful elegance of the best Italian buildings in the same 
style: in fact these faults may be said to characterize 
the productions of the German Renaissance style in 
general. A further instance of this is afforded by Fig. 
204, which represents a portion of the facade, though, 
properly speaking, it belongs to the Rococo style. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 313 




Figs. 202, 203. PART OF THE FACADE ON THE OTTO HEINRICH 
BUILDINGS IN HEIDELBERG CASTLE. 



314 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




if'llffl 




i-'ig. 204. PORTION OF THE FACADE OF THE BUILDINGS OF 
HENRY THE WISE IN HEIDELBERG CASTLE, 1601-1607. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



315 



^^^Kr; 




Fig. 205. VIEW OF THE CLOTH HALL AT BRUNSWICK. 



The three illustrations which have been taken for this 
work from Pfnor's very meritorious "Le Chateau de 
Heidelberg" should tend to moderate the excessive ad- 
miration which is bestowed on this the most esteemed of 
all the buildings of the German Renaissance. The pic- 
turesque beauty of the present ruins ought not to screen 



316 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

Ihe lack of pure and graceful forms of detail when 
.■iudging- of the architectural and artistic merits of the 
huilding. Fig. 205 shows an interesting and pleasing 
example of the German Renaissance. 

In Germany, as in other countries, the elements of the 
preceding style are intermingled with those of the Ren- 
aissance during the early period of its prevalence, 
particularly as regards details. It was not till the seven- 
teenth century that any architects of note flourished : 
amongst these may be mentioned Elias HoU of Augs- 
burg (died 1636), in which town he built the Town- 
Hall and the Arsenal, and Holzschuher, who was the ar- 
chitect of the Town-Hall at Nuremberg. 

The architectural activity, which had so long been 
hampered by the Thirty Years' War, followed the 
method of treatment advocated by Bernini and Bor- 
romini, v/hich is marked by great capriciousness in the 
treatment and disposition of the architectural forms. 
Dietterlein also contributed greatly by his publications 
to the extension of this school. In the year 1685 Neh- 
ring began the Arsenal at Berlin which was finished 
by Schlueter, the architect of the Palace, who died in 
1714. The latter was followed by Knobelsdorf, the ar- 
chitect of Frederick the Great; he built the palaces of 
Charlottenburg and Sans Souci and the new palace at 
Potsdam, The Zwirner Palace at Dresden, which was 
built in 1711 by Poepelmann, must also be mentioned as 
a noteworthy example of this style. 

186, In Spain an Early Renaissance Style appears, 
a kind of transitional Renaissance belonging to the 
first half of the sixteenth century. It consisted of the 
application of Moorish and pointed arch forms in eon- 
junction with those of classical antiquity : in this way a 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 317 

confoiination was produced which was peculiar to 
Spain, and the style is characterized hy bold lightness, 
by luxuriance in decoration, and by a spirit of romance. 
Naturally there was no harmony founded on a duly 
concerted organic arrangement: it is rather the excess 
of magnificence which dazzles the sense and causes a 
favorable impression in the spectators of the buildings, 
such, for example, as the quadrangles of the palaces and 
monasteries of the period. 

In the reign of Charles V. this ornate early Renais- 
sance style gave place to a later one, which in reality 
belongs to the Eococo style. It came into universal use 
in the second half of the sixteenth century, and was 
much aided by the extensive architectural undertakings 
of Philip II. Its principal expositors were the archi- 
tects Giovanni Battista de Toledo and Giovanni de'Her- 
rera, who were both pupils of Michel- Angelo. 

187. The Italian Eenaissance style was introduced 
into England about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury by John of Padua, the architect of Henry VIII., 
towards the closing years of the reign of that monarch. 
In the reign of Elizabeth to the end of that of James I., 
Dutch architects were in vogue in England in conse- 
quence of religious and political sympathies. Their 
peculiarities of taste are reflected in that English branch 
of the Renaissance style usually known under the name 
of Elizabethan, 

It must be remarked that, as a rule, English build- 
ings in the Renaissance style are distinguished by ca- 
pricious treatment of forms, and generally exhibit a 
deficiency in that grace and dignity both in details and 
ensemble which lend a peculiar charm to Italian struc- 
tures in the same style. English Renaissance buildingis 



318 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUEE 



also differ in the same respects from the French ; they 
display more similarity with those of the Later German 




Fig. 206. WOLLATON HALL. 




Fig. 207. GROUND-PLAN OF Fig. 206, WOLLATON HALI*. 

Renaissance, as, for example, the Castle of Heidelberg; 
where there is much similarity, at least in the treatment 
of details, to the style known as thD Elizabethan. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



319 



It is especially this vitiated taste 
in form and details which character- 
ized the Elizabethan Renaissance 
(see Fig. 206.) The usual Rococc 
Renaissance forms also occur in it, as, 
for instance, the quadrant-shaped 
gables curving alternately inwards 
and outwards, as also pilasters and 
columns intersected by quoins and 
bands; and various grotesque and 
debased forms. Enriched quoins are 
also freely used at angles and jambs. 
Fig. 208 may serve as a specimen of 
the details of the Elizabethan style. 

Inigo Jones, who was an imitator 
of Palladio, and who designed the 
Palace of Whitehall in London, de- 
serves mention as the only English 
architect of this period who, to a 
certain extent, preserved the classical 
Renaissance style in its purity, and 
free from numerous extraneous inno- 
vations. Christopher Wren (1675- 
1710) followed in his footsteps; he 
was the architect of St. Paul's, Lon- 
don, a building which, by its dome, 
recalls St. Peter's at Rome, and 
though marked neither by elegance 
of form nor vigor of style, still pos- 
sesses considerable architectural im- 
portance. 

188. Fig. 210 and 211 are intended 
to convey an idea of the details of 
decoration which characterized the 



Fig. 208. Comer of a Firf^ 

Place in the Elizabeth 

Gallery at Windsor 

Cafitle. 



320 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



Renaissance style during its best period, and which dis- 
play considerable grace and finish. They are based on 
the antique Roman type, but still display a peculiar 
independent treatment, as in the deeply under-<;ut 
foliage in the arabesques and the lightness and clearness 
of the stalks and tendrils. 




ST. PAUL'S, LONDON. 



The ornamentation of the Later Renaissance is less 
vigorous in tone, and allows the admixture of animals 
with vegetable forms, and in this way serves as an 
introduction to the Rococo style. Festoons are of fre- 
quent occurrence, as also cornucopias and garlands, as 



EASY LESSONS IN AKCHITECTURE 3^^ 




Fig. 210. PORTION OF FRIEZE AT VENICE. 




Fig. 211. PORTION OF FRIEZE AT VENICE. 



322 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

well as fabulous subject such as dragons, satyrs, dolph- 
ins, masks, lions' heads, and so on. 

In conclusion, it must be remarked that the sculptured 
ornament of the Early Renaissance was distinguished by 
its excellent effect, due partly to the fact that the separ- 
ate portions of the decoration were varied both in their 
bulk and in the degree of projection given to them, but 
more to vigorous undercutting and skilful disposition 
of light and shade, so that when seen from a distance 
only a few salient points stood out in prominent relief. 
It is only on a close inspection that the more delicate 
lines of the leaves, tendrils, and figures which connect 
together these large masses display themselves. The 
masterly manner with which Renaissance ornament is 
treated appears chiefly in the fact that all portions are 
not dealt with alike, the finest effects being obtained 
by the subordination of individual portions and the 
prominence given to those which are most important. 
The ornaments are also so arranged as to form a pleasing 
contrast with the containing or adjoining architectural 
lines; and are fitted and subordinated to them; a mat- 
ter of the highest importance. In this respect the later 
Renaissance cannot boast of equal success. On the 
contrary, more salient ornaments began to be uniformly 
employed, and in too great profusion. Increased rich- 
ness of effect was, it is true, thus arrived at, but the 
productions lost in grace what they gained in richness. 
As a sort of counterpoise to this tendency the archi- 
tectural mouldings and details were executed in a more 
decisive and prominent way, so as to keep the decorative 
details in subordination to the main plan. On the 
other hand ornamentation tried by dint of increased 
extravagance to accommodate itself to the exaggerated 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



323 



architectural features. The result of this was that the 
style became heavy and inartistic. 




Fig. 212, CANOPY OF THE TOMB OP CARDINALi 
D'AMBOISB AT ROUEN. 



Fig. 212 represents a characteristic specimen of 
French Renaissance decoration, and with this we will 
conclude our chapter on Renaissance Architecture. 



324 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



THE EOCOCO STYLE OF THE RENAISSANCE. 

189. As has already been shown in the preceding por- 
tion of the work, the tendency was displayed soon after 
the revival of ancient Roman architecture to consider the 
columnar orders as the most essential element, and to 
construct everything in accordance with established 
rules. As early, however, as the middle of the sixteenth 
century an opposite tendency was observable, and ex- 
cessive freedom in the employment of objectless and 
unusual forms became apparent, which by no means 
tallied with their original purpose and which conse- 
quently led to the total decadence of architecture. It 
is true that antique forms were still continually em- 
ployed, but in a manner which was not in accordance 
with, and even antagonistic to, the original intention. 

As has been mentioned in the previous chapter, 
Michel- Angelo was the first who, with his genial but at 
the same time untractable proclivities, displayed his un- 
willingness to conform in imitative art with the laws 
laid down by nature, and as regards construction, to 
observe the conditions necessitated by static and archi- 
tectural canons. For the sake of novelty, he introduced 
strange and discordant forms which were called into 
existence neither by actual necessity nor by the original 
design, and his intention appears to have been to excite 
astonishment rather than admiration. 

It was, moreover, a special misfortune for art that 
his admirers and imitators endeavored not only to copy 
but to surpass the faults which could only be pardoned 
in the case of the towering genius of the Italian archi- 
tect. 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 325 

When the principles of noble simplicity and purity of 
form were no longer followed, a predilection began to 
be manifested for magnificence and luxuriance. This 
tendency was in accordance with the spirit of the age, 
and attained its zenith during the reign of Louis XIV. 
The' characteristic and constructive element, with its 
great moderation in the employment of ornamentation 
which marked the age of Louis XIII., had to give way 
before this new tendency, and solidity and sterling worth 
were superseded by a more flimsy and highly-embellished 
method of construction. One advantage, however, is 
attained in the productions of the Rococo style, at least 
as regards the productions of the best architects ; namely, 
that the effect of masses and the picturesque arrange- 
ment both of the external features and the internal 
spaces seems to have been thoroughly grasped, and a 
splendid and imposing result thereby attained; and 
although the details may display bad taste, yet the effect 
of the whole is often grandiose and not inharmonious. 

This is especially the case with interiors, because the 
whole architectural ornamentation, as well as the furni- 
ture and other decorative objects, are fashioned, even 
to the smallest detail, in the same style and taste, and 
complete harr^.ony is consequently secured. This offers 
a gTeat contrast to our own times, when the objects 
which influence the general effect of our sitting-rooms, 
and even of our state apartments, are huddled together 
in the most heterogeneous way, without any reference to 
the character of the architectural enrichments. This evil 
seems only to be avoided in cases where the guiding hand 
of an artistically trained architect directs not only the 
architectural ornamentation of such apartments, but also 
the furnishing and introduction of the smallest details. 



326 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKE 

The essential points of difference between the Roman, 
Florentine and Venetian styles cease with the introduc- 
tion of the Rococo style of the Renaissance. 

Apart from some modifications which were based on 
local traditions and influences, and which bear traces of 
the foregoing period, the Roman Rococo style may be 
viewed as that universally prevalent. 

190. The Rococo style may, in its turn, be divided 
into two periods, which are to be distinguished by 
variety of style. The first period comprises the time 
between its first appearance, in the middle of the six- 
teenth century, and the beginning of the seventeenth, 
during which the pure and simple forms of the Renais- 
sance were not yet entirely abandoned, and the advan- 
tages which have just been alluded to are more observ- 
able, while the defects which have also been enumerated 
are less so than is the case in the second period. Dur- 
ing this latter the greatest freedom in the treatment 
of architectural forms prevailed to the disregard of all 
laws, and free scope was given to the most fantastic com- 
binations. This state of things was mainly brought 
about by the influence of Lorenzo Bernini (1589-1680), 
as well as by that of Francesco Borromini (1599-1667). 
The denomination Rococo is distinctively assigned to 
the taste of the second period of the style. Many shades 
of difference have been traced in it, especially of late 
years, which have been classified as the Jesuit Style, the 
Capuchin Style, the Spanish Rococo Style, etc. Within 
its domain fall all the architectural productions from 
the commencement of the second period till the latest re- 
vival of classical architecture during the last century. 
During this period the deterioration of architecture and 
taste went hand in hand with the contemporaneous un- 
natural fashion of wigs, and the senseless want of taste 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



327 



in the employment of pigtails and powder ; and a certain 
affinity between the architecture of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries, and a method of dressing the hair 




Pig. 213. DECORATIVE FRAGMENT FROM THE JESUIT CHURCH 
AT ROME. 



which then prevailed, has led to the expression "Pigtail 
and Periwig Style" being employed to describe the 
period under consideration. 

191. The main essentials in all the Rococo Styles 
are a certain independence in the ornamentation of the 



328 EASY LESSONS IN' ARCHITECTURE 

main architectural organism, the prominence of this 
ornamentation itself, and finally its shapes and design. 
A luxurious elegance is displayed in the treatment of 




Fig. 214. PART OP FACADE OP THE CHURCH OP ST. PAUL AND 
ST. LOUiS AT PARIS. 

interiors, which was most happily employed in the em- 
bellishment of the state apartments. Fig. 213 gives an 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



329 



example of tlie absence of connection among tlie various 
ornaments employed in tlie system of decoration, such 
as was especially peculiar to the churches of the Jesuits. 
In this style curved lines of the most varied description 
supersede all straight lines hoth in ground plans and in 




^^^g|a^^^^^iafe§i^ 



Fig. 215. PART OF THE BACK OF THE PITTI PALACE AT 

FLORENCE. 



designs, whilst the most ordinary and characteristic 
embellishments are volutes, shellfish, and scrolls ; gToups 
of fruit and garlands of flowers, hangings, curtains, 
etc. (Fig. 214.) Columns, pilasters, and mouldings are 
intermingled and intertwined in a fantastic and mean- 



330 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



ingless manner, the cornices are often interrupted; the 
essentially component parts of the architecture are fre- 
quently mutilated; for instance, columns and wall- 
pilasters are executed in rustic work, i. e., formed of 
extensively projecting hewn stones, yet are furnished 
with a capital and base as is shown by Fig. 215, which 
is an illustration taken from the Late Italian Renais- 
sance. For the sake of peculiarity, the various corn- 




Fig. 216. 



ponent elements assumed a form diametrically opposed 
to their original designation; mere decorative and 
secondary details were raised to the rank of essentials, 
whilst the real principal forms sank to an entirely sub- 
ordinate position. 

The greatest variety is displayed in the gables of 
dwelling-houses. Figs. 216 and 217 illustrate the high- 
est pitch of tastelessness in this respect. At first the 
same were only boldly curved, or consisted of perpen- 
dicular stages, the central one of which was crowned 
either by a straight sided or a gently curved pediment, 
whilst the usual scrolls were introduced at the sides 
(either simple or sculptured). (Fig. 214.) 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



331 



The following- figures, which are taken from French 
buildings, are intended to illustrate the treatment of 
the various decorative features during the seventeenth 




Fig. 217. GABLES OF TWO HOUSES AT HAMBURG. 





Fig. 218. 



Fig. 219. 



century: Figs. 218 and 219 represent capitals, Fig. 220 
a cornice, Fig. 221 the termination of a pilaster-strip 
with panel, Fig. 222 a decorative desisru in a similar 



332 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUEE 



panel, Fig. 223 the canopy of a panel. All these belong 
to the period of Louis XIV. Fig. 224 represents the 
setting of a panel, Fig. 225 the keystone of an arched 




Fig. 220. 



lv:lj,j;J:;!»;2;i:.ljEjSli:!iii:,!illli:il 
Fig. 221. 





Fig. 222. 



Fig. 223. 



DECORATIVE DETAILS OF THE TIME OF LOUIS XIV. 



head-piece, Fig. 226 the same with a rectangular set- 
ting, and Fig. 227 a console supporting a balcony, the 
iron railing of which is also characteristic of the Rococo 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



333 




Fig. 225. 



Style. These last four Figures belong to the time of 
Louis XV. 

192. A deficiency in organization of form, from 
which fault the Renaissance was not free from its verj' 
commencement, becomes still more perceptible in the 
Rococo Style, and continues to increase, till at length 



334 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

the utmost license became usual. But in spite of all this 
it is indisputably necessary to accord the Rococo Style 
its due merits, and accurately to determine, on the one 
hand, in what its defects consist, and, on the other, 
what were the causes and advantages which secured for 
it during a space of two hundred years (1580-1780) a 
predominance over the whole civilized world in spite of 





Fig. 226. Pig. 227. 

DECORATIVE DETAILS OF THE TIME OF LOUIS XV. 

the degeneracy of forms which it displayed. In Italy, 
especially, the numerous buildings constructed in the 
Rococo Style must be taken into consideration when the 
architecture of that country is viewed collectively, and 
its details become the subject of observation and study. 
During the time that the license of the Rococo Style 
prevailed, the elements of the ancient columnar orders 
were often misapplied, engaged columns and pilasters 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 335 

were frequently so connected with other side-pilasters 
which were recessed behind them to the number of one, 
two, or even three, that the cornices and, in fact, all 
horizontal mouldings were separately profiled over each 
column or pilaster. (See Fig. 214.) The shape of the 
various architectural features was also strikingly arbi- 
trary, especially that of the gables with their varied 
slopes and curves. Individual forms no longer possess 
an organic or constructive expressiveness; they were 
only employed as a means to insure the picturesque 
grouping of the masses, and were generally constructed 
in high relief, in order to bring out the due effect of 
light and shade. The advantage which it is admitted 
rose out of so unshackled a mode of treatment was that 
it became easy to secure beautiful proportions, as neither 
traditional meaning nor constructive motives were taken 
into consideration, and the object, regardless of these, 
was merely to create forms and proportions which were 
pleasing to the eye, and above all a picturesque effect. 

193. Churches, more than any other buildings, un- 
derwent an entire change as regards interiors during 
the prevalence of the Rococo Style. Pillars only occur 
in the naves in isolated instances, and were mainly used 
in external ornamentation, their place as supports to 
the broad and lofty upper spaces being taken by masses 
of masonry and heavy piers with galleries. Domes were 
frequently introduced, and were found, as they could be 
lighted from above, to secure fine effects of illumination. 

The same love of the picturesque which compelled 
such changes in both essential and subordinate archi- 
tectural features led to the employment of a system of 
internal decoration in which statues were combined 
with frescoes. This was the case principally, and to an 



336 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

excessive extent, in the churches of the Jesuits, and this 
mode of embellishment became so general and so marked 
in the churches of that order that the expression ' ' Jesuit 
Style" has been adopted to designate it. The painting 
of the roofs played a most important part in the decora- 
tion of churches. Various kinds of settings were made 
use of, and other embellishments, such as festoons of 
flowers and fruits, and conchoidal designs, were freely 
introduced. The system of well disposed panelled ceil- 
ings, which was so prevalent in the Renaissance Style, 
as exemplified in St. Peter's and elsewhere, had to give 
way to the new system of painting in fresco. The 
whole space of the vaulting was frequently taken up 
by a single painting which covered the entire surface, 
representing "glories," surrounded by other groups in 
a sitting or recumbent posture, with architectural de- 
tails painted in perspective, and the heavenly canopy 
represented in blue and gold. In order to give an 
appearance of reality to the hovering figures, detached 
parts of the same were frequently allowed to extend 
beyond the setting or enclosing border. Fresco painting 
consequently became all-important, but its very promi- 
nence not unfrequently militated against the general 
harmonious effect of the architecture. 

The same license in the treatment and application of 
forms is also displayed in secular buildings. The 
facades and their details were especially treated with 
the greatest freedom, and the original constructive in- 
tention of the latter was no longer a matter of considera- 
tion. Fig. 228 gives an example of the Rococo style as 
applied to dwelling-houses. 

The taste for picturesque effect which plays such an 
important part in the productions of this style, found 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



337 




Fig. 22a. PORTION OF THE FACADE AT PARIS IN THE STYLE 
OF LOUIS XV. 



338 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

ample scope in the designs for vestibules and courts. 
The object which the architects were eager to obtain 
was that the view from the gateway should comprise 
some important detail, and convey an imposing or, at 
least pleasing perspective effect. Particular attention 
was also paid to staircases. They were generally con- 
structed with a view to effect, and had several landings 
with broad low steps, and had for the most part stone 
balustrades, and were covered over with rich vaults. 

194. In the eighteenth century circumstances oc- 
curred, which were favored by the national tendency of 
that epoch, and set a bound to any further deterioration 
in architecture, though it was scarcely possible to sink 
to a lower pitch than that which it had then attained. 
These altered circumstances were, however, not power- 
ful enough to bring about an entirely new development. 
Rational, or rather restrictive criticism, was, in accord- 
ance with the spirit of analysis, more suited to restrain 
further advance in a false direction than to call a new 
line of art into existence by means of creations demon- 
strative of genius. By the discovery of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii a veneration for antiquity was again 
aroused, which was, moreover, fostered by engravings of 
the best works of art that were preserved in museums, 
such as views of the temples at Paestum, as well as by 
Piranesi's masterly views of Roman monuments, and, 
finally, by new editions of the writings of Vitruvius, 
with suitable explanations and illustrations. Although 
in other countries than Italy the Rococo style pre- 
vailed for a considerable time longer, yet a reaction 
set in in favor of the efforts and tendencies of the six- 
teenth century. The further progress of the Rococo 
style w^as prevented, but, on the other hand, artists were 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 339 

withdrawn from tlie sphere of art into the colder and 
reflective regions of science. 

195. Although the classical architecture of antiquity 
came thus again into repute, yet, owing to the want 
of thorough studies of the monuments themselves, the 
precepts of Vitruvius and the most celebrated architects 
of the sixteenth century still remained in vogue, espec- 
cially those of Vignola and Palladio. The studies were 
consequently only second-hand, instead of being de- 
rived from the original sources. The architects were 
imitators of imitators. It is therefore natural that their 
constructions, to which they strove more than ever to 
impart repose and severity of style, appeared only spirit- 
less and insipid. Architecture seemed especially to lose 
in life and activity. Although no retrogression took 
place, still no progress was brought about; but a con- 
dition of lassitude supervened, which, after the excesses 
of the period which had so recently elapsed, had not 
internal strength enough to expand into a free, reno- 
vated, and independent artistic activity. 



TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. 

196. In the preceding divisions of the work the 
peculiarities of those architectural styles have been 
described which required consideration either owing to 
their monumental and artistic importance, or to the 
reference they bore to and influence which they exercised 
upon the succeeding style. It still remains to take 
notice of a method of building which occurs in con- 
nection with several of the styles which have been de- 
scribed, and displays the features appropriate to each, 



340 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

but in which the material employed, namely, wood, 
has given rise to a certain general similarity of aspect, 
differing in this respect from stone or brick. But even 
in buildings constructed of this material two varieties 
occur; that is to say, those framed or half timbered 
houses in which wood is employed in connection with 
brick, and those in which it forms the only constructive 




Fig. 229. VIEW OF THE WOOD CHURCH AT BURGUND. 



material, and no stone or brick is introduced. To this 
latter class belong the ancient wood monuments of Nor- 
way and the houses which occur in mountainous dis- 
tricts, of which Switzerland, and especially the Bernese 
Oberland, offers the most beautiful examples. Conse- 
quently the designation, Swiss houses, or Swiss cottages, 
is that which is most generally applied to the entire 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



341 



class of houses whicli are peculiar in a more or less 
similar shape to other mountain districts, especially the 
Tyrol. The Russian block or log-houses must also be 
mentioned as being constructed on a similar plan. 







■■■■B i^^^^^^^^^^^ 



il!\^T /"I\/1'I1 



sa:i^Drw 



Fig. 230. FRONT VIEW OF BAY-WORK HOUSE AT HALBERSTADT. 



The wood buildings of Norway lay claim to a certain 
monumental and historical importance, partly because 
they belong to the oldest class of buildings of this 
description, and partly owing to the purpose for which 
they were erected, namely, to serve as churches. The 
case is different as regards the merit of their artistic 
construction and beauty of shape, in both of which 



342 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 



points the standard attained is not a high' one, as is 
shown by Fig. 231. The details principally show 
traces of the architectural styles prevalent at the time 




Fig. Z31. DETAIL, OF Fig. 230. 



of their erection, viz., the Romanesque and Byzantine, 
while the main forms must be considered as the result 
of a severe climate. The perishable nature of the ma- 
terial employed was also naturally prejudicial to any 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 343 

advanced and regular development of architectural skill. 
From these causes the whole design assumed a pyramidal 
shape, whilst the climate necessitated a mode of con- 
struction which is peculiar to the buildings in question. 
As a protection against its rigors the structures were 
surrounded by covered passages ornamented externally 
with those little arcades which are a distinguishing 
feature of the Eomanesque style, whilst the roofs were 
necessarily very steep in shape on account of the heavy 
falls of snow, and were covered with wood shingles, 
tiles, or slates. The form of construction is rather 
rough, for the corners are generally formed of rude 
logs, whilst the walls between merely consist of upright 
boards joined to one another. Churches of this descrip- 
tion are known in Norway by the name of Fascine 
Churches. Although the construction is thus artless, 
yet an effort to enrich the whole by individual details 
and by the employment of painted embellishments is 
frequently to be noticed. This is especially effected by 
means of arabesque-like carvings on the doorways and 
gables. 

In the interior, columns wrought out of trunks of 
trees, support either a barrel vault which lies over the 
nave of the building, and is constructed with boards, 
or else a flat roof of the same material. The capitals 
of these columns, when they do not consist merely of 
rings, are generally an imitation of the Romanesque 
cubical capital. The churches are usually dark, inas- 
much as the only light which they receive is from little 
windows let in high up in the structure. 

Framed houses are especially numerous in the Harz 
Mountains in Germany. In the oldest specimens the 
ornamentation has affinity with the Gothic style, whilst 



344 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 

the larger number show traces of the later Renaissance. 
The most characteristic feature of these buildings is 
that the stories are not placed perpendicularly one 
above another, but that each overhangs the one im- 




Fig. 232. DETAIL OF A BAY-WORK HOUSE. 

mediately beneath it (Fig. 230). This overhanging con- 
struction gives scope for much external enrichment, and 
especially for that which forms the peculiar ornament 
of these buildings, namely, the carved or fluted brackets 
which support the walls of the story above, and the 
spaces between these brackets (Figs. 231 and 232). The 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 345 

wall-space below these is not ah^^ays fluted or carved, 
but sometimes covered witli a more or less ornamental 
outer coating of upright or sloping timbers (Fig. 233). 
It was by endeavors such as these just mentioned that 
an attempt was made to bring wooden buildings within 
the range of artistic productions, and though the build- 
ings remained tasteless, still an attempt was made to 
gain enrichment by chamfering the projecting ends of 
the beams, and veiy frequently by filling in between the 
timbers with courses of various kinds of stone. This 
kind of architecture is frequently employed both in town 




Fig. 233. PORTION OF BAY-WORK HOUSE. 



houses and public buildings, as, for instance, in the Town 
Hall at Wernigerode ; and in a simple form in domestic 
buildings in the country. 

The third class of timber buildings which has to be de- 
scribed is the so-called Swiss-Cottage style (Fig. 234). 
This class belongs exclusively to the countiy in contra- 



346 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 347 

distinction to the town. It is only quite lately that its 
application has been extended to other purposes, as for 
example (and in combination with framed half-tim- 
bered construction), to railway-stations, &c. 

The external walls of Swiss houses are, in the case of 
the log-houses, generally formed of trunks of trees ar- 
ranged horizontally and overlapping one another, the in- 
terstices being closed up and daubed over. At the present 
day, however, solid walls are of frequent occurrence, or, 
at any rate, the lower part of the house is frequently 
solid. In the first-named mode of construction the 
trunks are either carved and left visible, or they are 
cased by wrought boards. 

The main characteristic of these houses is the broad 
overhanging roof, which projects over both the gables and 
the sides, and underneath which elegant galleries with 
carved w^ooden staircases are sheltered. These galleries 
frequently occur one above another in the different 
stories of the building, and they sometimes run all round 
the house, though they are more frequently met with on 
one or two sides only. Wooden steps generally lead up 
to these galleries from the outside, when they are not 
high. The rafters of these projecting roofs are left bare, 
and generally carved in a curved shape. The gables and 
the eaves of the roof are lined by boarding carved with 
various ornaments, which materially tends to increase the 
picturesque effect and the elegance of the building. The 
roof is not steep in its pitch, and is covered with wood, 
slate, or slabs of stone. 

Although the characteristics of this class of buildings 
are generally uniform, yet shades of difference occur 
here and there. These deviations are perceptible in the 
various countries where wooden houses are met with, and 



348 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 




EAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 349 

are found even in the different cantons of Switzerland. 
It would, however, carry us too far to enter more fully 
into these various points of difference. Fig. 235 exhibits 
a characteristic example of one of these Swiss-cottages 
or chalets. 



TABLES OF STYLES BY COMPARISON. 

After the detailed description of architectural styles 
which has now been given, it may not be amiss to add the 
following table of styles, which is to a certain extent the 
resume of the whole. 

I. Old Indian Style. — Childlike helplessness. Pre- 
tentious mode of expression combined with mythical 
freedom of imagination. 

II. Egyptian Style. — Solemn earnestness and impos- 
ing aspect. 

III. Grecian Style. — ^Nobility of expression and of 
the whole effect. Stately calm. 

IV. Eoman Style. — Manly vigor in form and con- 
ception. 

V. Chinese Style. — Punchinello. 

VI. Early Christian Basilica Style. — Expression of 
independence with the struggle for freedom from foreign 
influences. 

VII. The Romanesque Style. — An expression of mel- 
ancholy, but at the same time combined with geniality 
in sacred and private buildings, and grimness in castles 
and strongholds. 

VIII. Moorish Style. — ^Free-vent to over-wrought 
fancy, and eccentric tone in conjunction with spectacu- 
lar display. The spirit of chivalry permeates the whole. 



350 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTUKB 

IX. The Pointed or Gothic Style. — The expression of 
inward faith till it attains exaggerated enthusiasm, ever 
pointing heavenwards. 

X. English Late-Gothic (Tudor) Style.— Gives the 
notion of practical worldly-wisdom and self-reliance, and 
pursues its own course when allied to what is in- 
congruous. 

XI. Renaissance Style: — 

Commencement: Delight at meeting again after a long 

separation. — Approaches. 
Middle: Appreciation and influence of new relations, 

established after a long interruption. 
End : Feeling of uneasiness ; efforts to attain freedom. 

XII. Baroque Style. — Freedom when attained mis- 
used to excess. 

Afterwards the following phases occur: — 
1st Phase : Stagnation. — Physical and moral exhaustion. 

— Sleep. 
2nd Phase : Transition to waking and rousing, owing to 

various influencing forces and visions of the past. 
3rd Phase : Beginning of the nineteenth century lethar- 
gic and meaningless wanderings, clinging now to 
this, now that prominent object. 
4th Phase: The present day. — Fully brisk and awake, 
but still under control. — Efforts to find the right path, 
at one time approaching, at another departing from 
the smooth track, because the goal still appears in- 
distinct and assumes various aspect. 
The relations between artists and the world at large 
are reciprocal; art is neither formed nor developed by 
one of them alone. The endeavors of the artist can only 
be effective when they correspond to the spiritual and 
intellectual feelings of the people. Artists are only able 



EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 351 

to raise art to its highest pitch when an appreciation of 
and a desire for artistic productions have become uni- 
versal, and are conjoined with a general perception of 
what is good and beautiful in art. After this level has 
been attained, the criticism of the people at large who 
have been trained and rendered intelligent judges by- 
good works of art, reacts on the artist and urges him to 
attain a higher stage of development. 

It therefore seems necessary, if the efforts of architects 
are to attain the wished-for results, that the principles 
to be followed should be known to non-professional per- 
sons, and especially to all educated people, who exercise 
any influence over public opinion, and, lastly, to those 
engaged in industrial pursuits, who by their works are 
called upon to second and facilitate these efforts on the 
part of the architect. 

It is hoped that this book will in some degree eon- 
tribute to bring about this happy result, by helping to 
arouse a feeling for, and a general interest in, architec- 
ture as an art and in its works, and by explaining much 
that renders it difficult to discriminate between the good 
and the bad. Much would be gained by the whole com- 
munity beyond the satisfaction which persons ol culture 
cannot but feel, in critically distinguishing various 
styles, and estimating the value of each. 



ARCHITECTURAL 
DRAWING 

SELF-TAUGHT 



PREFACE 

Having been more or less interested in Archi 
tecture and the building trades for nearly a half 
a century, I have in that time become acquainted 
with a great many workmen, who, while filling a 
subordinate position, possessed aspirations and 
ambitions, which, had they had a fair knowledge 
of drawing and geometry, would have lifted them 
to the hightest place in the department in which 
they labored. To give similar good fellows a 
chance to obtain the necessary knowledge to 
enable them to apply for the better positions 
with a certainty of their being able to fill them 
with credit is the motive which has prompted 
the compilation of this book, and, knowing the 
quality and magnitude of their wants, by 
personal contact with the workmen in the shop 
and on the building, I think I am qualified, to a 
large extent, to cull from the vast treasure house 
of industrial and technical literature, which added 
to my own experience, to present to the work- 
man in the simplest form possible the material 
he requires to help him along in the struggle for 



better conditions. To attempt to write a book 
on the subject of architectural drawing and claim 
for it originality, is simply out of the question; 
for very little that is original can be said, indeed 
very little is wanted to be said, for the literature 
now obtainable seems to cover every point and 
every phase of the subject. 

It may be asked then: "Why make another 
book on the subject?" This seems a just and 
reasonable query, and one that deserves a well 
considered answer, and I will, to the best of my 
ability, endeavor to make such answer. First, 
then, while admitting that all that need be said 
on the subject has been said, and better said than 
I can say it, yet, it is so scattered and broken up, 
a bit here, and a bit there, that the student for 
whom this work is prepared would require to 
own a gold mine to be able to purchase all the 
works containing just what he requires; secondly, 
as this work is specially designed for active 
workmen who have no time to wade through 
ponderous tomes to find what may be a simple 
matter after all, they would probably be forced 
to forego the knowledge if it could not be 
obtained in a cheap and handy form, therefore, 
it is thought that by gathering together, and 
putting within reach of those who want them, a 



series of instructions containing what is con- 
sidered the most suitable to satisfy the require- 
ments I have undertaken to fill, and which I 
hope will prove satisfactory to the young work- 
man. Doubtless there are many things in this 
little work that, in the opinion of many persons, 
might be dispensed with; it maybe, and likely is, 
that there are many good things omitted, many 
things that would have proved extremely useful, 
but in palliation I can justly say, that everything 
I have found on the subject, that was plain, 
simple and within the capacity of most of the 
persons this book will reach, and that were not 
too extensive, I have made use of, and to the 
best of my ability have placed them before my 
readers in such language as I am sure will meet 
with their approval. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 

INDEX 



PAGE 

Advice to draftsmen 12 

Advice to Young Men 13 

Advantage of knowing how 14 

A box of instruments 35 

American instruments 39 

Attic plan for brick cottage Ill 

Ashler work 118 

Arch over window 126 

A rampart arch 131 

A straight arch 131 

Arches of various kinds 146 

Arabesque fretwork 172 

Anthemion 185 

A wrought iron design 213 

A circular ornamental design 215 

Arrangement of flutes and fillets 222 

Arrangement of Doric order 228 

Advice to student 241 

Alphabets 246 

A method of hatching showing materials 258 

A parting word 262 

B 

Beam compasses 31 

Brown's ellipsograph 34 

Bow pens and pencils 43 

Boxwood scales 46 

Brick cottage plans 108 

Brick foundations 114 

Blocked coursed work 118 

Bond in brickwork 119 

Brick courses 120 

Brickwork generally 121 

Bonding in 9-inch walls 122 

Bed of arch 130 

Brick and stone arches 145 

Box frame weights 162 

Balusters 175 

Barge boards 179 

Border mouldings 183 

Border, Egyptian style 186 

VII 



VIII INDEX 

Pagb 

Border, Byzantine style 189 

Byzantine Rosette 189 

Balustrades 202 

Balcony 209 

Block letters 246 

Blue prints 261 

C 

Cheap drawing boards 19 

Cartridge paper 20 

Cleaning pen 52 

Circular ornaments 60 

Circular segments 61 

Curves of various grades 63 

Circles and straight lines mixed 67 

Curved mouldings 68 

Compass drawn scrolls 85 

Cutting lead pencils 93 

Cellar plan for cottage 108 

Crown of arches 139 

Casings for door and window finish 158 

Cornice for frame building 159 

Cornice for brick building 161 

Curved and straight lines 162 

Complicated fret work 173 

Chain moulding 177 

Continuous moulding 177 

Curved line ornaments 178 

Cut scroll work 179 

Conventional flower 184 

Conventional lotus 186 

Cut Gothic border 190 

Cinquefoil Gothic ornament 193 

Curves for cut work 198 

Cut work for barge boards, etc 199 

Carvers' ornaments 200 

Cut work for balustrades 202 

Columns 219 

Columns, fluted 220 

Columns with fillets 221 

Columns with fillets and reeds 222 

Corinthian order of architecture 236 

Column and section, Corinthian 237 

Colors used in drawings 249 

Colors representing materials 254 

D 

Drawing boards. How to make 18 

Drawing board grooved 19 

Drawing paper 20 



INDEX 1 

PAGE 

Damp-stretching 23 

Drawing table 24 

Drawing pens 38 

Drawing lines 53 

Drawing circles 54 

Drawing concentric curves 55 

Drawing eccentric curves 55 

Drawing circular ornaments 57 

Drawing variable curved ornaments 58 

Doric mouldings 73 

Describing ellipses by aid of trammel 78 

Dotted line work 88 

Dimension lines 92 

Different grades of pencils < 99 

Drawing arches 127 

Doorway entrance 151 

Diagonals and squares 164 

Drops for porches and verandas 203 

Drops for balcony 209 

Drawings for iron work 213 

Drawing sections of fluted columns 220 

Dividing circumferences of columns 221 

Drawing of Tuscan order 226 

Doric order of architecture 228 

Drawing the Doric order 228 

of Ionic capital and entablature 234 

for letters 244 

Description of colors 250 

Defining use of colors 253 

E 

Ellipsograph 33 

Ellipsograph illustrated 34 

English drawing instruments 39 

Elliptical mouldings 76 

Elliptical curves by string 77 

Elliptical curve by trammel 78 

Egg shaped figures, How to draw them 82 

Examples in line work 86 

Erasions 98 

End elevations and section of cottage 113 

English bond of brickwork 124 

Elevation of brickwork 125 

Extrados of arches 129 

Elliptical arches in brickwork 134 

Elevation of doorway 151 

Elevation of window 153 

Elevation of inside door and finish 155 

Egyptian ornament 180 

Elaborated scroll 182 



2 INDEX 

Page 

Egg and dart 183 

Echinus 183 

Egyptian lotus border 186 

Elaborate tracery 197 

Eave boards 207 

Elliptical wrought iron scroll 213 

Elliptical ornamentation 216 

Entasis of columns 225 

Elevation of Tuscan order 226 

Elevation of Doric order 228 

Elevation of Composite order 230 

F 

Free-hand drawing 14 

French curves 26 

Flat scales 30 

Figured plans 105 

Floor plans for cottage 110 

Front elevation of brick cottage 112 

Foundation footings 114 

Fourteen-inch brick wall 125 

Flat arches in brickwork 141 

Finish of inside door 155 

Fret work 171 

Figured ornaments 175 

Finished scroll work 179 

Fence boards, ornamental 211 

Fluting columns 218 

Flutes and fillets 221 

Figures for drawings 242 

Flowing of colors 250 

G 

Good tools 17 

Greek mouldings 69 

Gothic brick arches 134 

Gothic arches generally 135 

Gothic ogee arches 138 

Gothic arches of various kinds 146 

Gutter and cornice 159 

Gutter and cornice open 161 

Gothic perforated work 166 

Greek fret work 171 

Greek lily 184 

Greek anthemim 185 

Gothic ornament in border 190 

Gothic tracery 194 

Greek Ionic 233 



INDEX 3 

Page 
H 

Hard rubber scales 49 

Handy method of drawing scrolls 84 

Hatching lines 89 

How to hold the lead pencil 95 

Herring bone brickwork 126 

How to describe an elliptical arch 134 

Horsealioe arches 139 

Horseshoe arches of several styles 146 

Hexagon ornament 167 

Handling brushes in coloring 251 

Hatching, showing materials 258 



Introduction 11 

Instruments in Morocco case 36 

Instruments in wooden box , 87 

Inserting ink in pen 51 

Ink brush 52 

Inking in 52 

Inking lines 53 

Intrados of arches 129 

Inside shutter finish 152 

Inside window finish 153 

Inside finish of sliding doors 156 

Introduction to the order of architecture 218 

Ionic mouldings 234 

J 

Joining curves 66 

Joining straight lines to curved lines 67 

Joints in masonry 119 

Joints in brickwork 120 

Joints in bonded work 121 

Joints in arches 130 

Joints shown in brick arches 140 

Jamb in section 151 

Joint of sliding doors 157 

K 

Keystone of arch 129 

L 

Linework 85 

Linework in shade and shadow 88 

Laying off dimensions 91 

Lead pencils cut to shape 93 

Lancet arches 186 

Lintels of stone ". . . 146 



4 INDEX 

Pagb 

Laying out diagonals 165 

Laying out hexagon work 167 

Laying out turned ornaments 175 

Laying out scrolls 178 

Lotus ornamentations 186 

Laying out tracery 196 

Laying out cut work 206 

Laying out flutes of columns 218 

Laying out fillets and flutes 221 

Laying out letters 243 

Lettering generally 244 

Laying on of colors 252 

M 

Manner of sharpening pen 42 

Manner of closing pen 43 

Mouldings 69 

Methods of describing Greek mouldings 71 

Method of describing ellipses 77 

Method of describing arch 134 

Moorish arches 139 

Moorish arches of various kinds 146 

Miscellaneous arches 149 

Mixed ornament 168 

Moorish fret work 172 

Mixed Greek ornament 174 

Mouldings of Tuscan order 226 

Mouldings for Doric order 228 

Modillions 238 

Miscellaneous matters 241 

Making of letters 242 

Methods of coloring 250 

Mixing colors 252 

Materials shown by hatching 258 

Method of mixing ink 260 



Ornamental curves 59 

Ornaments from circles 60 

Ovals 81 

Ornamental line work , 87 

arches 137 

Tudor arches 138 

Ogee Gothic arches 138 

Openings in stone work 143 

Ornamental Gothic work 166 

Ornamental cut work 199 

Ornamental balustrades 205 

Ornamental iron work 215 

Order on architecture 223 



INDEX 5 

Page 

Open letters 344 

Old style letters 345 

P 

Preface 3 

Paper tacks 31 

Prices of drawing pens 39 

Pens, with and without ink 51 

Proper method of holding pen 90 

Position of hand when drawing 95 

Pencil lines and erasions 97 

Preliminary rough sketches 108 

Plans in part 105 

Plan of cellar 108 

Plan of courses in brickwork 135 

Plan of details 150 

Pocket for sliding doors 157 

Plan of pocket for sliding doors 157 

Perforated stone work 166 

Panel work in fret 301 

Pickets for oi-namental fence 311 

Proportions for Tuscan order 336 

Proportions of Doric order 288 

Plan and elevation of Ionic column 334 

Plan and elevation of Corinthian order 836 

Proportion of Composite order 339 

Proportion of letters 343 

Preparing paper for coloring 349 

Preparing colors 353 

Preventing ink from "creeping" 360 

Q 

Quatrefoil 191 

Quatereal columns 318 

R 

Roman mouldings 70 

Rubber for erasing 98 

Rough sketches 100 

Rough sketches figured 103 

Rough sketches of details 103 

Random rubble work 116 

Rough stone work 116 

Rubble work coursed 116 

Rustic stone work 117 

Running bond in brickwork 183 

Rubble arches 146 

Rosette, Egyptian 186 

Roman border 187 



6 INDEX 

Page 

Roman Rosette 188 

Roman ornament 188 

Running elliptical ornament 216 

Roman Ionic order 333 

Runic letters 245 

Retouching colored drawings 252 

Rough shading 259 

Reissman's "Blue print making" 261 

S 

Set squares 26 

Swivel squares 28 

Straight edges 29 

Scale-triangular 30 

Splices 33 

Swiss drawing instruments 38 

Steel scales 47 

Showing various curves 63 

Scrolls, how to draw them 83 

String and pencil 84 

Sharpening lead pencils properly . 94 

Sketches of windows 104 

Scale for work 107 

Section of brick cottage 113 

Side elevation of cottage 113 

Stone foundation 114 

Stone walls 115 

Squared stone work 119 

Semi-circular arches 127 

Span of arches 129 

Spring of arches 129 

Segmental arches 132 

Segment of Tudor arches 132 

Semi-elliptical arches 133 

Stone arches with offsets 143 

Segmental Gothic arches 147 

Section of door jamb 151 

Shutter linings 152 

Splay of window jambs 154 

Section of window jamb and finish 154 

Sliding doors 156 

Section of sliding door pocket 156 

Section of corner studs 158 

Section of window finish 158 

Section of cornice 159 

Section of cornice for brief building 161 

Section for box frame 162 

Section for window sill 162 

Straight and curved lines 163 

Squares and diagonals 164 



INDEX 7 

Page 

Straight line ornamentation 169 

Strap work 170 

Star work 170 

ScroU work 178 

Scroll work for carvers 200 

Scroll work on elliptical plan 216 

Something on architectural orders 218 

Sections of columns 219 

Section of Doric order 228 

Sections of Ionic order 234 

Single line letters 245 

Shaded letters and figures 247 

Stone, wood and iron shown by colors 257 

Shading for different forms 259 

T 

Thumb tacks 21 

Tee squares 25 

Trammel 31 

The drawing pen discussed 41 

Triangles 47 

The lead pencil 93 

Tee square and pencil 95 

Thrust in arches 130 

Tudor arch 132 

Tudor arches of various kinds 148 

Tiles and diagonals 166 

Trefoil ornament 173, 191 

Turned ornaments 175 

Tracery 194 

The Tuscan order of architecture 225 

The Grecian Doric 230 

The Ionic order of architecture 234 

The Corinthian order of architecture 238 

The Composite order of architecture 239 

The use of colors in drawing 249 

Tints in coloring 252 

U 

Use of bow-pen and pencil 44 

Uses of pencils generally 46 

Urns 175 

Use of colors in drawings 249 

Use of hair pencils for coloring 252 

Use of heavy ink lines 260 

V 

Variable curves 27 

Various mouldings , 76 



8 INDEX 

Page 

Vertical measurements 106 

Voiissoirs 129 

Versed sine of arches 129 

Various arches 146 

Verge boards 119 

Veranda cut work 202 

Volutes in Ionic order 237 

Various letter! 244 

W 

Walls of stone 114 

Walls of brick 114 

Window openings in brick walls 142 

Window linings 152 

Window frame with weights 162 

Window finish at sill 162 

Wave mouldings 177 

Wave scrolls 178 

Work for balconies 202 

What materials are represented by colors 255 



PLATES 

PAGE 

Plate 1. Eighteen illustrations 16 

Plate 2. Plan of Cottage 32 

Plate 3. Full Frame for Cottage 48 

Plate 4. Showing Disposition of Joists 64 

Plate 5. Elevation of Front and End of Cottage 80 

Plate 6. Constructive Details = 96 

Plate 7. Showing Cornice, and Roof Construction 112 

Plate 8. Shows Plans of Windows, Doors, etc 128 

Plate 9. Inside Finish of Windows and Doors 144 

Plate 10. Elevation and Section of FinLsh 160 

Plate 11. Doors and Door Finish 176 

Plate 13. Stairs, Newels and Balusters 192 

Plate 13. Elevation and Details of Mantel 208 

Plate 14. Elevation of a Book-case 224 

Plate 15. Kitchen and Student's Desk 232 

Plate 16. Section and Plans of Window 240 

Plate 17. Cellar Window in Stone Wall 248 

Plate 18. Sections of Windows in Wood 256 



Architectural Drawing Self Taught 

INTRODUCTION 

Before entering into the subject on which this 
work is being prepared, the editor and compiler 
would like to say a few words to the reader, in 
connection therewith. 

It will be noticed that the title of this work is 
"Architectural and Builders' Drawing Self- 
Taught"; and this title fairly conveys to the 
intelligent reader, the scope of the volume, as 
the work is intended solely for young progressive 
carpenters and builders who are not going to 
drag out a tiresome existence by remaining at 
the bottom of their trades, and who have not 
had an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of 
architectural drawing or the use of drawing 
instruments. Many of the best draftsmen in the 
United States, Canada, and Great Britain, came 
from the ranks of the working men; men who 
had gained the most of their knowledge of the 
laws of construction and exactness in the work- 
shop, at the bench, or on the buildings. where 
11 



12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

they were employed; and I may say that it is 
within the power of ninety per cent of workmen 
to become fairly good draftsmen, by their own 
efforts, and the aid of such books as the one I 
have now prepared for this purpose; and the 
young man who has by his own efforts, per- 
severance and ability, succeeded in being able 
to place on paper or board with pen and pencil, a 
plain elevation of a door, window, house, stone 
wall, or veranda, drawn to scale, and so made as 
to convey to his fellow workman a correct idea 
of what is intended, that man has achieved a 
result which should — and generally does — 
advance his wages, increase his importance, and 
make him a more valuable and useful citizen. 
It is not to be supposed that this little work 
alone, even though thoroughly digested, will 
enable the reader to become a finished drafts- 
man, nor is it so intended, but it will aid him 
materially in acquiring such knowledge as will 
give him a good start on the highway to success. 
Wherever the student can attain access to a 
school for drawing, there he should at once 
proceed, for a few hours spent over a drawing 
board under competent supervision, will do more 
towards giving him an insight into the methods 
and practice of good draftsmanship than it is 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 13 

possible to obtain by many days of book study. 
Where there are no such schools available the 
student should try and get into an architect's 
office, or into the office of some mechanical 
draftsman, and either pay for, or work for, a 
series of lessons on drawing, but when none of 
these conditions exist, he should take up a series 
of studies in practical geometry in connection 
with drawing; as a knowledge of geometry as 
presented in either "Modern Carpentry and 
Joinery", or other works published in this series 
of work-manuals, by Messrs. Frederick J. Drake 
&Co. 

The construction of geometrical figures is 
exceedingly good exercise and will not only 
give the reader good theoretical knowledge, but 
will help him in his drawing lessons and practice 
him in exactness. 

By application and determination "to fight it 
out to a finish" the earnest student will be sure 
to make a good — perhaps a first-class — drafts- 
man, for, to the really earnest man, nothing is 
impossible within the range of human 
accomplishments. 

I have referred in the foregoing to "exactness." 
This is the first "necessity" in a drawing that is 
intended to be used as a guide for actual work. 



14 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

A drawing may be rough, dirty and inartistically 
done, but if it be complete and correct it serves 
its purpose, and is immeasurably superior for 
practical uses to the inexact artistic one, which 
may dazzle with its shade and shadows and 
fineness of execution, but leads to confusion and 
failure and consequent chagrin and loss. 

I have thought it necessary to inject into this 
little work a few remarks and a few illustrations 
on Free Hand Drawing, as many persons are 
gifted with the power of being able to make a 
fair drawing of objects on sight, and it was 
thought that, perhaps, a few hints in this direc- 
tion would be necessary to make the book 
complete, as these hints may aid those who have 
these gifts, and stimulate those who have them 
not, to cultivate the art, as a knowledge of it is 
one of the most useful aids the drawing student 
can possess. 

It must be remembered this work does not 
pretend to lead the student beyond the realm of 
plain practical drawing, such as the everyday 
workman will find useful and convenient, when- 
ever he wishes to convey to others an idea of 
what he intends to erect, or to lay out on paper 
or board a piece of work he is about to 
execute. I have eschewed perspective, and 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 15 

elaborate drawings of any kind, but, should it 
be thought wise, I may hereafter, prepare a 
work for this series, dealing with perspective 
and a higher grade of work than is herewith 
presented. 

SOMETHING ABOUT DRAWING INSTRUMENTS 

In all kinds of geometrical, architectural and 
mechanical drawing, the accuracy of the work 
will depend much, in theory, on the excellency 
of the drawing instruments used. 

Practically, these instruments are not quite 
perfect, and any carelessness or negligence of 
the draftsman when using them, may render 
them unfit for accuracy of operation. Indeed, 
the hand and eye of the operator, viewed simply 
as instruments, for executing conceptions of 
form, are vastly superior and more varied than 
the best of appliances used by the draftsman, and 
well directed efforts should, and will, bring out 
this capacity so that, other things being equal, he 
will make the most expert and elegant drafts- 
man whose eye is most reliable in its estimate 
of form and size, and whose free hand is most 
skilled in expressing these elements of figure. 
Instruments, however, are necessary, and a little 
talk on the subject will not be out of place, and 
may prove of practical value to the reader. 



16 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE I. 

This plate exhibits some eighteen different 
sketches. No. i shows a plain method of laying 
out a room having sliding doors in it. No. 2 
shows the same room presented on another 
method. No 3 exhibits another simple plan ot 
marking off the same room, while No. 4 shows 
the walls in plain black. These four examples 
are intended to convey to the student some idea 
of the various methods of illustrating. No. 5 
shows the layout of a porch, with an angle on 
one corner. No. 6 shows the plan of the porch 
roof. Nos. 7 and 8 show plan of semi-octagon 
bay-windows, and roof plan, while No. 9 shows 
the roof plan for a pentagon bay-window. Nos. 
10 and II show two plans of stairs that are 
suggestive. Nos. 12 and 13 exhibit two styles of 
laying out a bath room. No. 14 shows several 
ways of laying out fireplaces, while 15, 16 and 17 
show portions of a pantry and kitchen. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 17 



never be less than 12 by 17 inches. Indeed, it is 



16 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 







pjak m^f^. 



^ 



yo'KS 



m^ 



II 




















— 


w 


— 




_., L_ 







on 






ra^ 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 17 




^ Plate.!. 







sssssssssssssss 




lio 






^ 



17 



SKK, 



5*'<T' 



never be less than 12 by 17 inches. Indeed, it is 



16 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 17 

Almost, in every department of life the best 
results can only be obtained by the skilful 
employment of the best means available. Some^ 
times a genius accomplishes supreme results with 
the most primitive of means, but it is not for 
geniuses this work is prepared, but for everyday 
sort of people, people who do not expect to 
build houses without materials, or become 
draftsmen without long and careful preparation; 
and such being the case it is in order that the 
reader be advised to purchase the best instru- 
ments and accessories his means will admit of. 

"A fine workman requires fine tools," and no 
man can do a fine piece of work not having the 
proper tools wherewith to do it, so no man can 
do a good piece of drafting without having the 
necessary tools; therefore, it will not be out of 
place to commence with a description of the 
instruments required, and the manner of using 
them. 

The first thing the young student will require, 
will be a drawing board. This may be made at 
home, but should be true on its face and the 
edges should be exactly at right-angles with 
each other, or perfectly sqziare. The board may 
be made in size, to suit requirements, but should 
never be less than 12 by 17 inches. Indeed, it is 



18 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



better to have two or three boards of sizes 
varying from 12x17 t:o 36x60 inches. 




Fig. I. 






They may be clamped on the ends with stuff 
about 1% inches wide and the thickness of the 
board, or they maybe held together with battens 
either screwed on to the underside as shown at 




Fig. 2. 

Fig. I, or dovetailed into the board across the 
grain as shown a^ r'ig. 2. At Fig. 3 a much 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 19 

better board is shown and one I can recommend 
as possessing nearly all the qualities of a perfect 
board. 

A glance at the illus- 
tration will explain the 
good qualities of this 
style of board. The wood 
used should be carefully 
selected pine or basswood 

with hardwood cross-bars at back. To pre- 
vent the warping of the wood, the board is 
sawed half way through at about every two 
inches, and for the purpose of allowing to con- 
tract and expand, the cross bars are not glued 
on, but fastened with screws, which run in oblong 
metal slots. At the ends, pieces of hardwood 
are inlaid, to give the T-square a smooth work- 
ing edge. They are also cut at every few 
inches, to allow for contraction and expansion 
of the board. 

While the cheapest boards are made of white 
pine or basswood, it doesn't necessarily follow 
that boards may not be made of other woods; 
cedar, mahogany and straight grained walnut 
make very fine boards and answer very well 
where you do not require to use pins for securing 
the paper to the board. When, then, hardwood 



20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

boards are used, it is as well to employ glue or 
mucilage in fastening paper to the board. 

Drawing paper comes in rolls of indefinite 
lengths, and from 36 to 54 inches wide, and in 
sheets of various sizes. It is made in different 
tints, is generally very tough, and is chiefly used 
for details; it is much cheaper than Whatman's, 
and for many purposes answers just as well. 
There is also a paper comes in rolls called 
"Cartridge paper" of a buff color, very strong 
and cheap, and admirably suited for details and 
like work. Tracing cloth, also, comes in rolls, 
18, 30, 36, and 42 inches wide; it is convenient 
and durable, and may be folded up almost any 
number of times without injury. 

Tracing paper is made of different qualities 
and sizes; it is rendered transparent, and 
qualified to receive ink lines and tinting without 
spreading. Like tracing cloth, when placed 
over a drawing already executed, the drawing is 
distinctly visible through the paper, and may be 
copied or traced directly by the ink instruments; 
thus an accurate copy may be made with great 
expedition. We cannot give reliable price 
quotations of these papers, as they vary some- 
what, and may be different prices in different 
localities. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 21 

The paper should be fastened to the board 
with pins or thumb-tacks similar to those 
exhibited in Fig. 4. These are made with a 
broad fiat head, of brass, white metal -" ^-^l^^ - 
or silver, and rounded so as to permit i 
the square to slide easily over them, ^^' '^ 
and the stem should be of steel and riveted or 
screwed into the head. 

Fig. 5 exhibits several styles of "thumb-tacks," 
all of which are well enough in their way. 
There is a 
number of other 
styles of tacks 
of various kinds 
besides the ones 
shown. 

When the 
young student gets down to "real work" and 
makes use of good paper, he should first 
damp the edges of the paper, then glue the 
edges and place fairly on the board, holding it 
in plsLce with pins or other suitable appliances, 
which may be removed when the work is dry 
and ready to operate upon. This method of 
fastening is sufficient where no shadowing or 
coloring is to be applied, and if the sheet is not 
too long a time upon the board. It has the 



<^ 



Fig. 5. 



22 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

advantage, too, of preserving to the paper its 
natural quality of surface. With mounted paper, 
there is no other proper way of fastening. For 
large, colored, or elaborate drawings, however, 
a damped sheet is preferable, and where the 
coloring is a flat tint, damp stretching is indis- 
pensable, as the partial wetting by water color 
causes the surface to buckle; partial wetting of 
loose paper by water color causes the surface to 
buckle. 

Damp-stretching is performed in the following 
manner: lay the sheet on the board, with the 
face side under, and have the thick edges 
trimmed from the paper; draw a wet sponge 
freely and rapidly over the upper side, beginning 
at the center, damping the entire surface, and 
allow the sheet to rest for a few minutes till it 
be damped through, and the surface-water 
disappears. Those parts which appear to revive 
sooner than others, should be retouched with the 
sponge. The damping should be done as lightly 
as possible, as the sponge always deprives the 
paper of more or less of its sizing. The sheet is 
now turned over and placed fair with the edges 
of the board — sufficiently clear of the working 
edges to permit the free action of the drawing- 
iquare. The square, or an ordinary straight- 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



23 



edge, Is next applied to the paper, and set a little 
within one edge, which Is then turned up over 
the square and smeared with glue. The paper 
is then turned down and pressed on the board, 
after which It Is rubbed down all along the "lap" 
with some smooth article. The same process Is 
performed on the other edges of the paper. 
The whole is 

then left to dry, .^ \// 

which, when 
completed, 
leaves the sur- 
face flat and 
tense. 

It Is not likely 
the ordinary 
workman will 
want to color his 
drawings, there- 
fore he will find 

it safer, and less trouble, to simply tack his 
paper on the board with the thumb tacks, and 
then make his drawings first In pencil, then In 
ink, but I have thought it well to give some hints 
regarding the manner of preparing the papers 
for coloring. Further on, I will have more to 
say on this subject and on the subject of color. 




Fig. 6. 



24 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Having^ prepared a drawing board, the next 
thing will be to provide a table or desk to rest 
the board on. I show a very good scheme for 
this purpose in sketch Fig. 6, and which can 
readily be made by any workman who can use 
tools. This should be fixed in some place where 
there is an abundance of light and in such a 
position that the light will fall on the board from 
the left side as shown in Fig. 7. The height and 




Fig. 7. 



projection of the table or desk are marked in 
Fig. 6, and a movable block of about 3 inches 
square is shown at A, which can be moved in 
such a fashion that the angle of the board may 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



25 



be made to suit the operator. This block must 
of course be as long as the drawing board. 

Fig. 7 shows the board in position with the 
paper tacked on, and the proper position of the 
hands are shown as they should appear while 
making the drawing. 

The next thing to be considered is the T 
square. This 
needs but little 
description, a s 
every workman 
is supposed to 
know what this 
instrument is; it 
may, however, 
be noted that 
T-squares differ 
in construction. 
In the common- 
est the "blade", 
or thin portion, 
is fixed flush 

with one side of the "butt", or "head", as at 
A, Fig, 8. In other forms the blade Is fast- 
ened in the middle of the butt, B, and this is 
the preferable form for large squares; others, at 
C, Fig. 8, have the blade above the level of the 




Fig. 8. 



26 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



head, to permit set-squares to go over it. Very 
large squares have a couple of little studs, as 
shown in the figure B, to steady them. 

French curves, L, Fig. 9, are made in a great 
variety of combinations. They are extremely 

handy for draw- 
ing curves not 
easily struck by 
the compasses, 
and also for ec- 
centric curves, 
which the com- 
passes are not 
able to describe 
as in medieval 
mouldings of 
some forms. In 
i n k i n g - i n a 
curve by the aid of one of these appliances 
the edges must be turned about on the pencilled 
drawing until some part is found which 
corresponds, when the edge of the curve will 
guide the drawing-pen. There are a great 
variety of these curves as may be seen at Fig. 
10. These variable or irregular curves are made 
of thin wood, hard rubber or celluloid, and are 
sold for a few cents each. 




Fig- 9. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



27 



The set square or squares, similar to those 
shown at Fig. 9, C, D, K and B, are great aids 




Fig. 10. 



to drawing as they may be employed in conjunc- 
tion with the T-square, for lining off angles, or 
laying off parallel lines as shown by the dotted 
lines EG, and FH. These set squares are made 




Fig. II. 

to suit different angles, and in many styles, 
as will be seen in Fig. 11. The manner of 



28 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



using them will suggest itself as the work pro- 
ceeds. 

T-squares of a superior kind may be obtained 
from any dealer in mathematical instruments 
for from $i.oo to $6.00 each, but in most cases 
the workman can make his own squares, as well 
as his own drawing boards, and save money by 
the operation. The squares shown at Fig. 12 
are of a superior kind, the blades and one edge 




Fig. 12. 



of the stocks having ebony or other hard wood 
glued on the edges to prevent them from wear- 
ing. The lower square has a movable stock, 
which is operated by a thumb screw, thus 
enabling the draftsman to set the blade to any 
angle desired. The working of this will be 
easily understood by the reader. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 29 

Another accessory, and one the workman can 
make for himself, is a straight edge — or several 
of them — which may be made of hard-wood, or 
it may be made of good clean straight grained 
soft wood, and have hardwood edges glued on 
as shown in Fig. 13. Perhaps it would be well 
to have three or four of these straight edges in 
different lengths and widths, say one 16 in. long, 




Fig. 13. 



one 30 in. long, and another 40 in. long. The 
widths may be 2 in., 2^ in., and 3^^ in. 
respectively. They should not be more than 
three-sixteenths of an inch thick, but would be 
better if they were thinner. 

A rule or scale is always necessary, for all 
architectural or other drawings that are intended 
to be worked from, must be made to scale. 
Usually, in this country, scales are made and 
marked off to some proportion of the English 
foot, when intended for architectural work. 
One sixteenth of an inch may represent one 



30 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



foot or one yard, as the case may be, so also may 
one eighth, one quarter, or one half of an inch 
represent one foot or one yard, just as the 
draftsman determines. One eighth of an inch is 
the most used, though one quarter of an inch is 



,^^^, ^ ,^^ p ^^^^^ , ^i,^^^^^^^^^j,^ jgg l^P^^^ 



Fig. 14. 

the scale generally employed. For workmen's use 
three quarters of an inch scale is handy, as this 
makes one sixteenth of an inch represent one 
inch of the actual work, which is quite con- 
venient In a working drawing. 

Scales may be had flat or triangular, and in 
boxwood, ivory or hard rubber, and one foot 




Fig. 15. 

long. The flat scales are very handy, but are 
sometimes confusing, because often two or more 
scales are laid off on one edge. Perhaps the 
handiest scale for actual use, is the triangular 
one, which is similar to Fig. 14. There are six 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



dl 



edges on this scale, each edge having a different 
marking or scale. The flat scale is shown at 
Fig. 15. This scale is 12 inches long, with 16 
scales, as follows: }i, A, }(, H, }4, Yq, ^, Vq, i, 
1%, i>^, i}i, 2, 2%, 2>^, and 3 inches to the foot, 
the first division of 
each scale subdi- 
vided in 12 parts, 
each. 

Besides these 
there are many 
other kinds of 
scales made use of 
by Architects, En- 
gineers, and Sur- 
veyors, but these 
shown and d e - 
scribed, will suffice 
for the purpose 
for which this book is prepared, as it is not 
intended to embody in this work other than the 
simplest methods of plain architectural work, 
and such as can be executed with the simplest 
kind of instruments. 

There is a number of other accessories used 
in drawing besides these mentioned, that are 
not placed in a regular box or case of instru- 




Fig. 16. 



32 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 2. 

Following up the ideas presented in Plate i, I 
give herewith the plans for a small cottage and 
show the cellar plan, first floor plan and chamber 
plan. This is drawn to a scale of sV of an inch 
to the foot, but I would advise the student to 
double the size, which, as a matter of fact, the 
original drawings of these examples is the scale 
to which they are made, namely -^t of an inch to 
the foot. Every item necessary for a house of 
this description is shown on these plans. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



33 



33 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



^^^//^//^///^^i^^m^^;^ 



^ - i 



- 



Ym//j//^/w^///www^/^////y^7m77)^ 




m////////////y///////////////?//, 



♦^■-. 



20 



— i-. 



f^u/io^TioK 



" 




" 


5«S, 








- 


7 
1 



ir X id 





V(:a/^,^ 



ARCHITECTURA.L DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 33 



^pi 



Plate. Z. 



tf X it 



^ 






J 



3^2. 



\br f^I5>oj^ 




cSfcCOKo f^of^ 



32 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 33 

ments, such as splines, ellipsographs, and beam- 
compasses; the latter being designed for 
drawing circles of large diameter, and are so 
made that the points can be moved to the 
desired distance apart. One steel point may be 
removed and a pencil or inking pen inserted. Set 
screws hold the heads in position on the sliding 
bar A, Fig. i6. This bar may be of wood, or of 
metal, preferably the former, and it may be of 
any desired length. 




Fig. 17. 

Splines are flexible strips of wood or metal, 
and are used for forming curves — regular or 
variable — and are held in position by a peculiar 
attachment which serves to hold the curve in 
position as shown at S S S, Fig. 17. These 
attachments are made of lead. 

The ellipsograph is a costly instrument and 
one which the ordinary workman would seldom 
require; besides, there are a number of ways by 
which an ellipse may be drawn, and figures 
approaching an ellipse, so I would not advise 



34 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



the young draftsman to purchase the more 
expensive one until his means or business 
warranted it. I give an illustration, however, of 




Fig. 1 8. 



Browne's patent ellipsograph in order to acquaint 
my readers with the style of instrument. This 
is an excellent device, and can be adjusted to 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 35 

form ellipses or ovals of all kinds within the 
limits of the instrument. It is shown with some 
of the attachments at Fig. i8. The price of this 
device varies from $9.00 to $14.00. A very 
good one may be obtained for about $12.00. 

Apart from the conventional box of instru- 
ments, the appliances now described will be 
about all the 3^oung workman will require 
unless, of course, he intends to study for an 
architect or mechanical engineer, when, of 
course, he will have passed beyond the limits of 
this work which is intended only for such work- 
men as have no other opportunities of learning 
the rudiments of draftsmanship. 

It will be in order now to say something about 
the instruments proper the beginner will require, 
so I will, as briefly as possible, describe the 
instruments, explain their uses, and offer a few 
suggestions as to their care and management. 

A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS 

It is not my province to recommend any 
particular make of instruments for, so far as I 
am aware any of, the ordinary makes — that are 
not intended for school children — will serve the 
purpose of learning their use, and afterwards, 
the student, when advanced sufficiently, a more 



36 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



costly and more complete set may be obtained if 
found necessary. While, of course, purchasing 
drawing instruments is like purchasing tools, 
that is, it is always better to buy the very best 
that can be bought, and I may say that the best 
may be obtained in single pieces or in boxes 
containing only three or four pieces. However, 
perhaps, it is best in our case to get a set similar 
to the case shown at Fig. 19. This is a Morocco 

case which con- 
tains two divid- 
ers, pen and pen- 
cil points, draw- 
ing pen, and a 
six inch flat 
scale. This case 
can be bought 
for about $4.00, 
for which sum instruments ought to be fairly good; 
if, however, the student can afford it, and feels 
that he had better purchase a set of instruments 
that will meet all his needs, present and future, 
why then he had better invest in a better quality 
of goods, and purchase a case containing a 
greater number of instruments and of a finer 
/ grade, such as I show at Fig. 20, which may be 
obtained for about $20.00 or $25.00. This case 




Fig. 19. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



37 



contains, besides the box, one S/^ in. dividers, 
with pen, pencil and needle points, lengthening 
bar; 3>^ in. dividers, with pen, pencil and needle 
points; 5 in. plain dividers; 5 in. hair spring 




Fig. 20. 

dividers; spring bow dividers, pen and pencil, 
needle points, ivory handle; 4.}4 in. ivory handle 
hinged drawing pen, needle point; 5^2 in. ivory 
handle hinged drawing pen, needle point; 
German silver protractor, ebony rule and scale. 



38 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



These instruments are made of fine German 
silver with superior steel points. 




Fig. 21. 

Fine Swiss made instruments cost more than 
German ones, as some of the Swiss cases run up 



ARCHITECTUJtAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 39 

to $150.00 and $175.00. English and American 
made instruments are high priced, but as a rule 
are more substantial and in the end give bet- 
ter satisfaction than other makes. 

The first things to be considered in a set of 
instruments are the compasses. These generally 
include dividers and pen and pencil attach- 
ments. It is not necessary to illustrate or de- 
scribe the form of these instruments, as they 
may be seen in the case as shown in Fig. 20, 
and the interchangeable parts will easily find 
the place they are intended for when required 
for use; so I will not dwell on the subject of com- 
passes longer. 

Perhaps the most important article in the case 
to the young student is the pen, and I will there- 
fore devote more space to a description of it 
than I will to any other of the instruments, as a 
proper knowledge of its use and care will be of 
great assistance in the work before us. 

A DRAWING PEN 

This is the most useful and the most used 
instrument in the case. Fig. 21, which is taken 
from Keuffel and Esser Co.'s catalogue, shows a 
variety of pens of the very best make, pens that 
are suited for any kind of line drawings in ink. 



40 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

The prices of these, with ivory handles, range 
from $1,40 to $2.50 each, and they are warranted 
to be the best of their kind. 

A few words as to the use and care of this 
instrument may not be out of place at this 
juncture, as it is important the instrument should 
be well understood by the student so that he 
may the better be able to make the best of it. 
The man who devotes himself exclusively to any 
particular vocation, day after day, for several 
years, acquires an intimate knowledge of its 
details that is not easily imparted to the novice 
through the medium of pen and ink, and often 
when it is attempted, the finer details which con- 
tribute so much to success are passed over lightly 
or are omitted altogether, "In the course of his 
experience he acquires ways and means of 
prosecuting his work, if he be intelligent and 
progressive, which makes its execution easy and 
places him on the list of "skilled operators." 

The art of mechanical drawing contains a few 
of those mysteries which, if published at all, have 
not been given a very wide circulation. 

Our scientific libraries and dealers in technical 
works are copiously supplied with books on 
mechanical drawing, in any of which may be 
found the illustrations of tools, curves, inks, 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 41 

colors, etc., carefully reproduced from the 
catalogues of dealers, but the accompanying 
description does not always give a clear idea of 
the relative merits of the different tools shown, 
how they should be selected, handled, and kept 
in repair, and, while it is not intended in this 
work to describe the methods of caring for and 
repairing all the instruments a box contains, it 
is necessary the pen should have more than a 
passing notice. 

It is a custom with many makers of first-class 
instruments to hinge one jaw of the ruling pen 
to the little separating block above the adjusting 
screw, so that it may be opened after the adjust- 
ing screw is removed. In a pen of this kind the 
joint should be very snug, as the least amount of 
play will allow the point of one jaw to slip ahead 
of the other, which would destroy the efficiency 
of the pen. In the opinion of the writer this 
joint is altogether unnecessary. It increases the 
first cost as well as complicates the instrument, 
and if used often, will get out of order, even 
with the very best workmanship. If used 
properly the points need never be separated 
further than the adjusting screw will permit. 
Many draftsmen have the hinge joint brazed or 
soldered so as to fix the movable jaw to the 



42 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

separating block and make it permanent. The 
points of a pen should never be separated for 
sharpening, which is the only purpose for 
which the hinge is made. When the point 
has become dull from use it will be found 
with a shape similar to Fig. 22. To restore 
it to the proper form the jaws should be 
closed by the adjusting screw, so that the 
points press gently against each other; 
then with a fine oilstone worked with a 
circular motion on the high corners it 
should be ground to a shape similar to 
Fig. 23. The point will then be blunt, but 
will have the proper working when the 
sides are reduced, which should be care- 
fully done by laying the side of the pen 
on the stone at an angle with its surface 
that will allow the metal to be ground in 
a straight line to a distance of about one 
quarter of an inch from the point. The 
jaws should be opened frequently as the 
work progresses and the points examined 

to avoid grinding through the point of 
23. 

one jaw into that of the other. The 

sides are to be reduced till the points of each 

jaw are equal and just fine enough to slide 

smoothly over the paper without producing a 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 43 

cutting or scratching sensation. When the 
points are not sharp enough to make a clean 
fine line the blunt part is easily visible with the 
naked eye, but when it is sufficiently re- 
duced it is hardly possible to see it. The A 
shape of the curves in the sides, or jaws, / 
of a pen is also an important feature. If 
the pen is too open near the point on 
account of the jaws being too much curved, 
as in Fig. 24, it will leave too much 
space for ink, causing it to dry quickly or 
to fall out in using. Fig. 25 shows about 
the proper amount of curve in the jaws 
to give surhcient mk space. 

Wooden handles, though not quite as 
elegant as bone, are preferable as they 
are not liable to break when accidentally 
swept off the drawing-board — an accident 
that destroys nine-tenths of the bone 
handles. 

For spring bow pens and pencil com- 
passes it is advisable to have on the 
adjusting screw, when the pen or pencil 
is set to draw its largest circle. With a 

1 . ... Fig. 25. 

pen that is not too strong in the springs 

an experienced draftsman will never change 

his centers to draw a shade line on one side of 



44 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

the circle, as this may be easily accomplished 
by springing the pen gently toward the side 
to be shaded, as he continues the movement 
of drawing the circle. The pivot, or needle 
point, should always be adjustable. When it is 
made solid with the leg of the instrument it is 
generally shaped like the point of a sewing 
needle, and will pierce a large hole through the 
paper or tracing cloth with the slightest pressure 
if used several times in the same center; and 
should a small piece be broken off the point, the 
pen will be useless unless a similar length be 
ground off the nibs of the pen. 

A very common source of annoyance in nearly 
all bow pens and pencil compasses is found in 
the eye or socket provided for the pencil. In 
many cases it is found too large to hold the 
ordinary naked lead, and too small for those 
covered with wood. Frequently draftsmen are 
obliged to overcome this difficulty by the clumsy 
makeshift of reducing the wood till it fits the 
socket. 

Sometimes a small bushing is provided with 
the compass, that will fit in the eye and hold the 
lead. This is unsatisfactory, as the pencil cannot 
be readily adjusted as the point wears away. 
The most effective treatment an instrument of 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 45 

this kind can have, is to file away the metal in 
the parting or "split" of the socket and close in 
its sides so as to reduce the eye sufficiently to 
grasp the hexagon lead of a 6H pencil; this 
makes the pencil-holder very convenient as well 
as economical, the butts of worn pencils may be 
stripped of their wood and the leads used in the 
compasses. 

So much for the pen in its various forms; and 
now a few words concerning some of the other 
instruments. Among these may be found some 
possessing various degrees of usefulness, and 
others having no merit whatever. Some of the 
devices that have been invented for making 
broken or dotted lines maybe classed among the 
latter. The proportional compasses or dividers 
is a very good tool to have in stock, but it should 
never be used for transferring drawings from 
one scale to another when accuracy is required; 
not only is the instrument liable to be in error, 
but if there should be any mistakes in measure- 
ment in the original drawing they will be trans- 
ferred to the new in a greater degree. 

A much more effective and convenient pointer 
than that usually found in sets of instruments 
may be made on the one end of a 6H pencil by 
reducing it to a fine point. The dot or point left 



46 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

by it, indicating the dimension, is always easily 
found, and, as the other end of the pencil may 
be made "chisel shaped" or flat for drawing 
lines, the operation of laying off dimensions and 
drawing the lines may be carried on without 
changing tools or losing time. For sharpening 
pencils, it is very convenient to have a fine file, 
attached by a string to the under side of the 
drawing board, or what is still better, as the file 
very soon gets dull, a piece of wood made about 
the shape of a small flat file with a piece of 
emery cloth glued to each side. In using, the 
pencil should be rubbed on the emery. 

The boxwood scale with triangular section, 
same as shown at Fig. 14, has served its purpose 
well, but it, too, has its weak points. The 
requirements of a good scale are that the 
graduations and figures shall be plain and 
indelible, that it be perfectly straight and the 
edges sharp, so that the division lines may be 
brought close to the paper. The boxwood scale 
does not possess the first of these features as 
the lines will be often dimmed or partially 
obliterated with two or three years' use. 

Some draftsmen have a habit of taking otf 
dimensions by placing one leg of the dividers on 
any particular division and extending the other 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 47 

to the distance required. When this is done 
with a boxwood scale its usefulness is limited to 
a very short time. The grain of the wood must 
be straight, or it will be apt to warp or spring. 
Some excellent scales are made of hardened 
steel, by a firm in Providence, R. I., which seem 
to me to be as near perfection as possible. 
Draftsmen as a rule, however, object to making 
use of steel scales, and they have not come Into 
general use; and for this reason, these scales, we 
are informed, cannot be obtained unless specially 
ordered at the factory. 

Every metallic Instrument the draftsman uses 
should, when possible, be nickel-plated. There 
Is nothing contributes so much to their pres- 
ervation, no amount of careful polishing and 
wiping will so effectually prevent rusting and 
discoloring, and nothing improves their appear- 
ance so much or makes them so agreeable to 
handle. The cost of plating is insignificant 
compared with the benefit derived, as the 
average cost of plating would not exceed ten 
cents for each tool or Instrument. 

In selecting triangles it is essential to have 
them of a material that will not change shape 
with each atmospheric disturbance. For a 
number of reasons hard rubber is the best that 



48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 3. 

On this Plate I show the side frame of the small 
cottage with all the openings for windows, also 
two sections of the framework, with the heights 
marked on for the different stories and sizes of 
timbers. The stonework and cellar windows are 
shown. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 49 

has been offered to the trade. It is unchange- 
able, under ordinary conditions, and may be 

:h. 
to 
,rp 
de 
lie 
he 
^es- 
he 
ng 
he 
de 
he 
^Id 
he 
int 
ten 
id, 
tV 
of 
nd 
/Vn 



a thin piece of brass plate with a knife-edge 
inserted in the working edge of the blade. This 



48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



CO 

tw 
m 
til 
sh 




^^iC^r^ 1 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



49 



Plate.3. 



has been offered to the trade. It is unchange- 
able, under ordinary conditions, and may be 

th. 

to 
irp 
ide 
ule 
the 
ges 
the 
>ng 
the 
ide 
the 
eld 
the 
unt 
pen 
.nd, 
itV 
tof 
and 
An 
has 
a thin piece of brass plate with a knife-edge 
inserted in the working edge of the blade. This 




48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



CO 

m 
til 
sh 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 49 

has been offered to the trade. It is unchange- 
able, under ordinary conditions, and may be 
made into angles from A to /? of an inch thick, 
which is about right for handiness and strength. 
There are very few woods that are adapted to 
this purpose, because of their liability to warp 
and twist, and generally they have to be made 
too thick for convenient use. The same rule 
holds good in the selection of a T-square; the 
blade should be as stiff as possible and the edges 
not more than }i of an inch thick; when the 
edges are thicker it is difficult to draw long 
parallel lines, particularly with the pen, as the 
point of contact between the pen and the blade 
of square Is on the upper corner, while the 
position of the point, when the pen is held 
vertically, must be the same distance from the 
lower corner of the edge of the blade on account 
of the angle formed between the side of the pen 
and the edge of the blade. On the other hand, 
It Is not advisable to have the edge less than tV 
of an inch thick; this would bring the point of 
contact too close to the point of the pen and 
would render it liable to smear the ink. An 
excellent T-square patented some time ago has 
a thin piece of brass plate with a knife-edge 
inserted in the working edge of the blade. This 



50 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

does very well when only a pencil is used, but a 
pen cannot be worked successfully against so 
thin an edge. A blade made of two different 
kinds of wood similar to that shown in Fig. 12, 
such as a mahogany center and ebony edges, 
while being excellent in their way, are liable to 
warp and "buckle" and require watching. 
Squares with swivel butts are very convenient 
for certain kinds of work, but for general pur- 
poses and for such students as this book is 
intended, the swivel stock had better be 
eschewed. It is much more convenient to have 
the blade secured to the stock as shown at A 
and C, Fig. 8, than to have it dovetailed or 
mortised into the stock as shown at B, Fig. 8. 
By this means the upper surface of the stock is 
on the same level as the drawing-board and 
does not interfere with the angles or scales 
when working near it. 

Perhaps the most troublesome appendage to a 
draftsman's outfit is found in the many forms of 
porcelain ink saucers and "piles." For holding 
and mixing soft colors the pile of saucers does 
very well, but it takes a long time to rub ink by 
this method before a good black ink is produced 
as the smooth bottom of these dishes does not 
abrade the stick of ink rapidly. There are 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



51 



several preparations of liquid ink that may be 
purchased, but they lack that solid black body 
in fine lines that Is so necessary for drawings or 
tracings that have to be copied 
by the blue printing process. Pre- 
pared liquid Ink requires a longer 
time to dry and is more liable to 
smear than ink made fresh from 
the stick. There is an ink saucer 
made by a firm in New York City 
that seems to meet all require- 
ments. It is simply a slab of slate 
about four inches square and three- 
fourths of an inch thick, having a 
cup or saucer shaped cavity for 
holding the ink turned in its cen- 
ter, and covered over with a piece 
of plate glass. A good black ink 
may be mixed in this saucer in a 
few minutes by the grinding action 
of the slate on the stick when 
being rubbed. While it is quite 
necessary to have the ink with some 
"body" in it, it Is not best to make it too thick, 
as It will not flow well then, and will be apt to 
dry too quickly and clog up the pen. 

When the Ink is ready to use, a portion of it 



Fig. 26. 



52 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



may be inserted between the nibs of the pen 
until there is about as much ink in the pen as 
shown by the shaded part in Fig. 26, where two 
pens are shown, one charged and one empty. 
The ink may be put in the pen by the aid of a 



Fig. 27. 

camel hair or sable brush, such as shown in Fig. 

27, which is full size. Clean off all superfluous 
ink from the outside of the 
nibs of the pen with a piece 
of chamois leather or a clean 
linen cloth, and you are 
ready for work. The pen 
may be filled by another 
method which is often 
adopted by draftsmen, as 
follows: Take the pen and 
open it, say, about a six- 
teenth of an inch, clean the 
nibs well with chamois, then 
close the pen with the screw 
until the light just shows 

between the nibs, then breathe gently between 

the nibs and dip them carefully into the ink, just 




Fig. 2 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 53 

touching the surface of the liquid, and the ink 
will run up between the nibs by attraction of the 
moisture caused by the breath on the inside of 
the nibs. 

We suppose the paper to be stretched on the 
drawing board, and either held in place by being 
pasted or by thumb tacks, such as shown in Figs. 
4 and 5. When all is ready, hold the pen as 
shown in Fig. 28, and carefully ink in all the 



Fig. 29. 

horizontal lines, both full and dotted, correcting 
where possible any slight irregularities that may 
have been made in pencilling. In drawing the 
graduated lines. Fig. 29, begin with the thinnest, 
then with the middle finger, as shown in Fig. 
28, turn the screw of the pen back, say, about a 
quarter of a revolution for each of the others, 
the last opening being about the right thickness 
for the border line. As the border line takes 
longer to dry it is very easy to smear, but of 
course this may be avoided by letting the ink 
dry while preparing the ink-leg for the com- 
passes. It is well to practice this method of 



54 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



drawing lines a number of times until a certain 
amount of perfection is attained. 

In drawing circles, care must be taken in 
holding the compasses in order to get an even 





Fig. 30. Fig. 31. 

thickness of lines, and the pen should always 
stand vertically over the work, as shown in Fig. 
30. When a number of circles drawn from a 
common center is necessary, as shown in Fig. 31, 
be sure to draw the outside, or the one having 




Fig. 32. 

the greatest radius, first, when the other circles 
may follow in regular order. ^ The sharp curves 
as shown in Fig. 31 are always the most difficult 
to draw correctly, while the flat curves, or 
curves with greater radius, are, within certain 
limits, much easier to describe. The curves 
shown at Fig. 32 are flat ones, and well within 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



55 



the range of the ordinary compass. The inner 
curve is "dotted" and to form this without a 
dotting pen, with any degree of regularity, 
requires considerable care and practice, but it is 
much better to make all dotted lines with the 
ordinary pen, than to make use of a dotting pen, 
which to a new beginner is generally a source of 






Fig. 33- 



Fig. 34- 



Fig. 35- 



trouble and disappointment. The examples of 
circles shown at Figs. 33, 34 and 35 offer good 
practice in curve drawing with the compasses. 
Before drawing them, however, it will be best to 
draw a pair of center lines for each circle, cutting 
each other at right angles in the center, and it 
is a good rule never to draw a circle under any 
circumstances without having two center lines to 
mark its proper situation. In the first circle, 
Fig, 33, mark off points one quarter of an inch 
apart along one of the diameters from the 
circumference to the center, and then describe 
the concentric circles with the compasses, taking 



56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

care not to bore a large hole through the papet* 
with the point. The compasses, if properly 
sharpened, should barely penetrate the paper 
and leave no impression on the board. 

To fill up the middle circle, Fig. 34, set the 
compasses to the radius, and then, putting the 
point at the intersection of one of the center 
lines with the circumference, mark across the 
circumference on each side; do the same at each 
intersection of the center line with circumference, 
and it will be found that the circumference is 
then divided into twelve equal parts. Now 
join each opposite joint by a line passing 
through the center and the figure will be 
complete. 

The last figure to be drawn, Fig. 35, is the 
most difficult, but has the best effect, so It is 
worth taking some pains over. Draw the two 
center lines, put in the large circles and divide 
the horizontal diameter into }( in. spaces. Take 
the small compass, set it to X iri. radius, and 
then put in the smallest semicircle on each side. 
Then set it to }^ in. radius, and put in the next 
semicircle; then to ^ in. radius for the next two 
semicircles, which should exactly meet at the 
center. Now to i In. radius, and, lastly to i^ in. 
radius, checking the curves before actually 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



57 



drawing them, by seeing how they fit with those 
already drawn. 

Here is an example, Fig. 36, made up 
altogether with curved lines and which offers 
good practice. This re- 
quires accurate division 
and correct draftsman- 
ship. 

A few practical exam- 
ples of the use of curves 
are shown in the follow- 
ing figures: Fig. 2)1 
shows a scheme by which ^^ ^ ' 

an ornament may be constructed where all the 





i^ig. 37. 



58 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



curves are drawn with one radius. The manner 
of getting the centers is shown by the dotted 
lines. Figs. 38 and 39 exhibit another combina- 
tion of curves which is easy to draw. To make 
Fig. 39 is perhaps the easiest of them all, as it 
is formed of curves drawn with one point of the 




Fig. 38. 



compass resting on one corner of each of the 
smaller squares which are shown by the dotted 
lines. 

The three examples shown in Figs. 40, 41, and 
42 are a little more difficult to draw than the 
previous ones. Fig. 40 may be termed a trefoil 
ornament, as the central divisions are drawn 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



59 



from the three points of an equilateral triangle, 
which is shown by the dotted lines. This style 



of an ornament 
is in frequent 
use in church 
work as the tri- 
angle is sup- 
p o s e d to be 
symbolic of the 
Trinity. The 
student should 
copy this often 
enough so that 




Fig. 40. 



60 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

he can draw or describe it from memory 
alone. 

Fig. 41 is simple enough when the principle is 
understood. The circles inside are drawn from 




Fig. 41. 

six centers, or from the six points of a hexagon. 
Care must be taken not to cross the lines at the 
intersections of the circles, when such crossings 
are not intended. This will give good practice. 

Fig. 42 is somewhat complicated, but it is 
surmised that no trouble will be found in the 
formation of the ornament; at least, there 
ought not to be, if the student has been mindful 
of what has gone before. 

There are many situations in which a curved 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 61 

line is required that calls for more or less skill 
to properly adjust to the purpose, and in order 
to arm the student with the proper knowledge 
to find centers for this purpose, the following 
problem is laid before him: Suppose we have 
three points that are not in a straight line, as 

ABC, Fig. 43. .<^-=^=5;^==:>>. 

through which ^^T^^^^Sc^^v^Sv 

w e want to /V r~~"TK. /f\ \'^~^^\ 

draw a portion /^l '^V^H^^^/\^'-J'^'^^\^ 
of a circle. Let A \ — ^~\\\l'' A,J^ /\1\ 
BHCbeachord K V^^O'^^^^^^^x^^ 
of the segment 1 \ ^>/^^^^^^^_^>^'N. \J 
H, and BJA a \iy/^f^]\^ 
chord enclosing \\M,J_^ \y\^^-J r/ 
the segment. \n>^_,_A X/N-^ ly 

Bisect or divide ^\\^^k y^C^^A^;/^'^ 

in equal parts ^■"^^^::i=sr:^:2='''^^'^ 

the chord BC ^'^' *'" 

at H, and square down from this point to D. 
Do the same with the chord AJB, squaring over 
from J to D, then the point where JD and HD 
intersect will be the center of the circle. 

This is a very important problem, and will be 
found useful in many ways. 

The same result may be obtained by the use 
of the compasses alone as may be seen as follows: 



62 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Suppose AB, Fig. 44, to be the curve, from the 
point A and B strike ares of equal radius inter- 




Fig. 43- 

seating at c and d, and draw a line through the 
intersections cutting the arc at e. This line will 

pass through the 
center. Then from 
points e and b, with 
a rather shorter ra- 
dius, strike arcs in- 
tersecting at/and^, 
draw a line through 
these intersections, 
and where the pre- 
vious line is cut will 
be the center as shown at h. 

A practical application of this example may be 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT «?{ 

used on Fig. 45, where it is desired to round off 
a corner as shown at BAC. The center of the 

curve is shown at O, 
from which the curve 
is struck. 

Fig. 46 shows the 
method justdescribed 
appHed to three 
straight lines form- 
ing two right angles 
and having two adja- 
cent corners rounded. 
Fig. 47 shows how 




Fig. 45. 



to deal with two parallel lines that are to be joined 
tangentially by a semicircle. In this case bisect the 
space between the two lines by a perpendicular 
line that must contain the center of the circle from 




Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. 

which the required circle is drawn. Determine 
the extreme position of the curve and mark from 
it, along the center line, a distance equal to half 
the distance between the lines, and this mark 



34 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 4. 

This plate shows the disposition ot the joists 
in first and second stories, also the position of 
rafters and ridges on the roof. These sketches 
show the trimmers for fireplace and stairs. The 
manner of drawing is very simple and should 
offer no difficulties to the student. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 65 



64 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



n 




Plate.4 



flT^T 



f^T Al 



^eco(/o 





i 1 


f- 


J_J 


1 












i 


II 


1 


— 


1 




1 


1 ■' 


II 



fl 



A.RCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 65 

•n i_ - ^U„ ^*-^^ ^( i-Vio t-<^/miirp^rI rirrlp. The 






\ 




V 




I 



^ 



Lili 



i 



X 



'I 




04 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



A.RCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 65 

will be the center of the required circle. The 
example shown at Fig. 48 is a little more difficult 
to deal with, as in this figure the lines which it is 
desired to join by a curve, are not at right 
angles. Therefore inside these, and at a 
distance from them equal to the radius of the 
curve which it is desired to use, draw two 
parallel lines. To do this, take the radius in the 
compasses and strike two arcs at some distance 
apart along the inside of each line. Tangent to 
these draw the two inner straight lines shown 
dotted, and their intersection will give the 
center required. The exact points of junction 
of the straight lines with the curve can be found 
by drawing perpendiculars from the center to 
the straight lines by the method shown on the 
left hand side of Fig. 48. 

The illustration, Fig. 49, on the left side, is 
exactly similar to Fig. 48 with the exception that 
it represents a sharper angle than that shown by 
the angle or corner of the previous example. 

At Fig. 50 is shown a method of joining a 
curve to a straight line by a smaller curve. In 
this example, . after drawing the given straight 
line and circle, set the compasses to the required 
radius, and from any point in the circumference 
of the circle describe a short arc outside it. 



66 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



From the center of the circle draw a straight line 
through this last point, and its intersection with 
the arc will give the radius of an arc concentric 
with the large circle, which must be drawn 
towards the given line. Then, with the required 
radius, again set off arcs from the given line to 
give a parallel line, as in Figs. 47 and 48. The 
Intersection of this parallel line with the larger 
arc will give the center to use for the connecting 





Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. 

curve. In every case it will be observed that the 
perpendicular line from the center of the 
junction curve to the line, or the line joining the 
centers of the two curves, will give the exact 
termination of the junction curve. 

Fig. 51 is practically the same as Fig. 49 with 
different radii. 

Fig. 52 shows two circles of different size 
joined by two curves of equal radii set off upon 
the same principle as Figs. 50 and 51. 

Fig. 53 shows a straight line cutting a circle 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 67 

and joined by small curves on the inside. After 
drawing the circle and straight line, take the 
required radius of connecting curve and draw a 
short arc on the inside of large curve — say, on 
the center line — and from the main center draw 
an arc concentric with the large circle, but inside 
it. Then, with the required radius, obtain a line 
parallel to the given line, and the intersections 





Fig. 53. Fig. 54. 

of this parallel line with the large arc will give 
the centers for the connecting curves. 

Fig. 54 shows two given parallel straight lines 
which are to be joined by an ogee or reversed 
curve. Select a point on one of the lines from 
which the curves may start, draw a horizontal 
line and also an inclined line, making an angle 
of 60 degrees with it. The latter line produced 
to cut the other given straight line will mark the 
termination of the curves. Bisect this inclined 
line, and it will give the junction point between 
the two curves. Bisect each half of the inclined 
line and produce the bisection to meet the 



68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

horizontal lines, to give the centers for the 
curves. Before drawing the curves, join these 
centers, to see that a straight line will pass 
exactly through the junction of the two curves, 
and then put in the curves with a radius equal 
to half the length of the inclined line. This is 
a very useful curve, and is similar to those used 
for cross-over roads on railways. In architecture 
the best curves are produced from conic sections 
or freehand. Circular curves have a harsh 
appearance. There are nevertheless, many 
cases where they are necessary or desirable. 

The draftsman will often be called upon to 
describe mouldings of various kinds, and it is 
proper he should know how to form these so 
that they may accord with the style for which 
they are intended, whether this be Greek, 

Roman, or otherwise. 

^-^^ ill -p^c-.. The following exam- 

(?..l...j.^ pies are old, but are 
of a kind that will 
always be in vogue 




-- --^ and It IS but fittmg 

Fig. 55. ^ , ^ 

the young student 
and workman should know how to draw them 
correctly. 

The example shown at Fig. 55 is a Scotia or 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ICfc-. , 




cove and is drawn as follows: Divide a, b into 
three equal parts; with ^ as a center and the 
radius c, a, describe the semi-circle e, a, d. Then 
with </ as a center 
and d, e as radius, r 
describe the quad- 
rant e, b, then a, e, 
■ b, will form the line 
of moulding. 

Fig. 56 shows an- Lfi. — ........^~J 

other method of ig- 5 • 

getting a deeper moulding. Let a, a, be the upper 
line and c, c, the lower; from a, drop a perpendic- 
ular to c] divide a, c, into seven equal parts; 
through the third of these, from a, draw a line 

parallel to a, a] 
T A from b, with b, a, 
draw the semicir- 
cle b, d, and from 
d, draw to e, per- 
pendicular to b, d; 
produce a, a, to e', 
from e, as a center, 
r, with e, m, as radius, describe part of a circle? 
to n. 

Fig. 57 shows an "echinus," or "ovolo." This 
is one of the most useful of mouldings, and was 




70 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



employed largely by the Greeks in many 
positions. Let a, b be the two points; join them 
by a line a, b\ divide this into seven equal parts; 
from b, with b, c, and from a, with the same 
radius, describe arcs cutting in c, from c, with 
c, a, describe the arc a, b. Another method of 
describing an ovolo is shown at Fig. 58. Let a, 

b, and c, d, be the two horizontal lines of the 

figure. Divide b, d, 
into four equal parts; 
make d, e, equal three 
of these; draw e, f\ 
then with any radius 
greater than half of 
d,f, with d, and f as 
centers respectively, 

describe the arc, cutting at g, from which, as a 
center, describe the arc, d, f. 

At Fig. 59 I show a moulding called a 
"quirked ovolo." The projection in this case is 
made equal to five-sevenths of its height, as seen 
by the divisions, and the radius of the circle <5, 

c, is made equal to two of the divisions, but 
other proportions may be taken. Describe the 
circle b, c, forming the upper part of the contour, 
and from the point £■, draw g, h, to form a 
tangent to the lower part of the curve- Draw 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



71 



f, a, perpendicularly to g;, k, and make ^, /, 
equal to the radius d, c, of the circle b, c\ join/, 




Fig. 5Q- 

d, by a straight line, which bisect by a line per- 
pendicular to it, meeting^, a, in a\ join a, d, and 




Fig. 60. 

produce the line to c. Then from a, as a center, 

with the radius a, c, or a, g, describe the curve c, g. 

Fig. 60 is a method where the tangent d, e, 



72 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



and the projections are given. Through the 
point of extreme projection b, draw the vertical 
line gy h, and through b, draw b, c, parallel to ^, 
h, and produce it to a, making c, a, equal to c, d. 
Divide e, b, and c, b, each into the same number 




Fig. 6i. 

of equal parts, and through the points of division 
in c, b, draw from a, straight lines, and through 
the points of division in c, b, draw from d, right 
lines, cutting those drawn from a. The inter- 
sections will be the points through which the 
curve is traced. 

In Fig. 6i I exhibit a method of describing the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



73 



Fig. 62. 



hyperbolic ovolo of the Grecian Doric capital, 
the tangent a, c, and projection b being given. 
Draw d, e, g, k, a, perpendicular to the horizon 
and draw ^, h, and e, f, at right angles to d, e, g, 

k, a. Make^, a equal 

to g, d, and e, k equal 
to d, e\ join h, k. Di- 
vide h, k and /, h into 
the same number of 
parts, and draw lines 
from a, through the 
divisions of k, h, and 

lines from d through the divisions of /, h, and 
their intersections are points in the curve. 

In Figs. 62 and 63 I show a cove or "cavetto" 

mould. To de- 
scribe it let ad, 
cd, Fig. 63, be 
the lines at top 
and bottom. 
f\f From b, draw to 
d, perpendicular 
to a,b; divide bd, 
into three equal parts; from d, lay on dc to e 
equal to two of these parts; join be, from e and 
b, with radius greater than half eb, draw arcs 
cutting in/; from/ with / b, draw the arc be. 




Fig. 63. 



74 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




Another method of describing this moulding is 
shown at Fig. 64. ab and cd, are the two hnes, 
divide the perpendicular into five equal parts, 

make de equal to 
five of these and 
proceed as in the 
last example. 

The next exam- 
ple is the cyma 
recta moulding. 
This is considered 
the most beautiful of mouldings; and this figure 
is the simplest form, and is easily described; ab, 
and cd, Fig. 65, are top and bottom lines of the 
moulding, be the height and de the projection. 
Divide the line d, 

16'jnb into twelve ^^ " ^^^ 

equal parts; take 
six of these parts 
as radius, with b 
and 6 as centers, 
describe the arcs 
g, with 8 as a center, and the same radius, 
describe the arc Gjb, then with i and 6 as centers 
describe the arcs at k, with h as a center, describe 
the arc d, 6. 

Fig. 66 shows a cyma recta formed by two 



€t 




Fig. 65. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



75 



Opposite curves, shown by the use of ordinates. 
By taking a greater number of points than 
shown, as centers, the figure will resemble an 
elliptical curve. The manner of drawing the 
curves is shown on the diagram and may be 
easily followed. 




Fig. 66, 

Fig. 67 shows a cyma recta formed with true 
elliptical quadrants. These curves may be 
obtained by following the lines in the diagram, 
or by any of the methods given for obtaining 
elliptical curves. This moulding can best be 
described by the use of a trammel, an instrument 
I will describe later on; or the curve may be 
obtained by the use of the ellipsograph, shown 
in Fig. 18. 



76 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



These examples will fully suffice to give the 
learner good practice on circular curves, as by a 
combination of these, nearly every form of 
moulding may be made. A few words on 
elliptical and some of the higher curves may 
not be amiss, but I do not think it wise to over- 




Fig. 67. 
burden this work with examples and instructions 
that the ordinary draftsman or workman may 
never be called upon to make use of. 

One of the simplest methods of forming an 
ellipse is by the aid of two pins, a string and a 
lead pencil as shown at Fig. 68. Suppose F B 
to be the major or longest axis, or diameter, and 
D C the minor or shorter axis or diameter, and 
E and K the two foci. These two points are 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



77 



obtained by taking the half of the major axis A 
B or F A on the compasses, and, standing one 
point at D, cut the points E and K on the line F 
B, and at these points insert the pins at E and 
K as shown. Take a string as shown by the 
dotted lines and tie to the pins at K, then stand 




the pencil at C and run the string round it and 
carry the string to the pin E, holding it tight 
and winding it once or twice round the pin, and 
then holding the string with the finger. Run 
the pencil around, keeping the loop of the string 
on the pencil, and it will guide the latter in the 
formation of the curve as shown. When one- 
half of the ellipse is formed, the string may be 
used for the other half, commencing the curve 
at F or B, as the case may be. This is commonly 



78 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



called "a gardener's oval," because gardeners 
make use of it for forming ornamental beds for 
flowers, or in making curves for walks, etc., etc. 
This method of forming the curve is based on 
the well-known property of the ellipse that the 
sum of any two lines drawn from the foci to 
their circumference is the same. 

The illustration shown at Fig. 69 shows a 
trammel and the method of using it which is 

very simple. The in- 
K^^ ^^-"n — ----^ strument consists of 

two principal parts, 
the fixed part in the 
form of a cross as 
C D, A B, and the 
movable tracer H G. 
The fixed piece is 
made of two triangular bars or pieces of wood 
of equal thickness, joined together so as to 
be in the same plane. On one side of the 
frame when made, is a groove forming a 
right-angled cross; the groove is shown. In 
this groove, two studs are fitted to slide 
easily. These studs are to carry the tracer and 
guide it on proper lines. The tracer may have 
a sliding stud on the end to carry a lead-pencil, 
or it may have a number of small holes passed 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



79 



through it, as shown in the cut, to carry the 
pencil. To draw an ellipse with this instrument, 
we measure off half the distance of the major 
axis from the pencil to the stud G, and half the 
minor axis from the pencil point to the stud H, 
then swing the tracer round, and the pencil will 
describe the ellipse required. The studs have 
little projections on their tops, that fit easily into 
the holes in the tracer, but this may be done 
away with, and two 
brad-awls or pins may 
be thrust through the 
tracer and into the 
studs, and then proceed 
with the work. With 
this instrument an el- 
lipse may easily be de- 
scribed. 

A figure that approximates an ellipse may be 
described by the compasses, and it is well for 
the draftsman to acquaint himself with the 
m.anner in which this is done, and to this end I 
submit perhaps the most useful method for this 
purpose*. Let us describe the oval shown at 
Fig. 70. Lay off the length C D, and at right 
angles to it and bisecting it lay off the width A 
B. On the larger diameter lay off a space equal 




Fig. 70. 



?«W ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUQITr 



PLATE 5. 

This elevation shows the front and side eleva- 
tion of the cottage in finished order. Two styles 
of drawing are shown, the one being in plain line 
and the other shaded. I would not advise the 
student to attempt shading until such time as he 
feels assured he can make a presentable piece 
of work. Of course, I mean, he should not 
attempt to shade any drawings for exhibition 
until he has had good practice on preliminary 
work. This plate is a very good one to copy. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 81 

to the shorter diameter or width, as shown by D 
E. Divide the remainder of the length or larger 



be useful to the draftsman, and it may oe wen to 
illustrate one or two methods by which this 
figure may be described. 

Let us describe a diamond or lozenge-shaped 



9SU ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




FRiorJr ^n(d 5^*^^ 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



81 



to the shorter diameter or width, as shown by D 
E. Divide the remainder of the length or larger 



Al-^, 



T? n 1^4-^ <-i . 1 — *-* 




:f? ^ - 1 i \ I' 



l^vp.TioN^ 



be useful to the draftsman, and it may be well to 
illustrate one or two methods by which this 
figure may be described. 

Let us describe a diamond or lozenge-shaped 



»M 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 81 

to the shorter diameter or width, as shown by D 
E. Divide the remainder of the length or larger 
diameter E C into three equal parts; with two 
of these parts as a radius, and R as a center, 
strike the circle GSFT. Then, with F as a 
center and F G as a radius, and G as a center 
and G F as radius strike the arcs as shown, 
intersecting each other and cutting the line 
drawn through the shorter diameter at O and 
P respectively. From O, through the points 
G and F, draw OL and OM, and likewise from 
P through the same points draw PK and PN. 
With O as center and OA as radius, strike the 
arc LM, and with P as center and with like 
radius, or PB which is the same, strike the arc 
KN. With F and G as centers, and with F D and 
C G which are the same, for radii, strike the 
arcs NM and K L respectively, thus completing 
the figure. 

The oval is not an ellipse, nor are any of the 
figures obtained by using the compasses, as no 
part of an ellipse is a circle, though it may 
approach closely to it. The oval may sometimes 
be useful to the draftsman, and it may be well to 
illustrate one or two methods by which this 
figure may be described. 

Let us describe a diamond or lozenge-shaped 



82 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



figure, such as shown at Fig. 71, and then trace 
a curve Inside of it as shown, touching the four 
sides of the figure, and a beautiful egg-shaped 
curve will be formed. For effect we may 
elongate the lozenge or shorten it at will, 
placing the shorter diameter at any point. 




Fig. 71. 



An egg-shaped oval may also be Inscribed in 
a figure having two unequal but parallel sides, 
both of which are bisected by the same line, 
perpendicular to both as shown in Fig. 72. 
These few examples are quite sufficient to satisfy 
the requirements of the ordinary draftsman, as 
they give the key by which he may construct 
any oval he may ever be called upon to form. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



83 



Scrolls often have to be drawn by draftsmen, 
and these may be obtained, more or less 
accurately, by various methods. One method 
employed, is by making use of two lead pencils 
well sharpened and arranged as shown in Fig. 
'J2,- A piece of string is tied tightly around one 
of the pencils and wound around the conical end 
as shown, while the point of the second pencil 





Fig. 72. 



Fig. 73- 



either pierces the string or the string is looped 
to hold the pencil, near the other pencil, which 
leaves the arrangement ready for work. To 
draw the scroll the pencils must be kept vertical, 
the point of the first kept firmly in the hole or 
center of the figure, and the second pencil must 
then be carried around the first, with the mark- 
ing point held in touch with the paper, the 
distance between the two increasing regularly as 
the string unwinds. 
This is a rough-and-ready means of drawing a 



84 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



scroll, but it has the quality of being fairly 
correct. 

Another similar method is shown in Fig. 74, 
only in this case the string unwinds from a spool 
on a fixed center A, D, B. Make loop E in the 
end of the thread, in 
which place a pencil 
as shown. Hold the 
spool firmly and move 
the pencil around 
it, unwinding the 
thread. A curve will 
be described, as 
shown in the lines. 
It is evident that the 
proportions of the 
figureare determined 
by the size of the spool 
smaller spool is to be used 
require. 

A simple method of forming a figure that 
corresponds to the spiral somewhat is shown in 
Fig. 75. This is drawn from two centers only, a 
and e, and if the distance between these centers 
is not too great, a fairly smooth appearance will 
be given to the figure. The method of describ- 
ing is simple. Take ai as radius and describe 




Fig. 74. 

Hence a larger or 
as circumstances 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 85 

a semicircle; then take ei and describe semi- 
circle 12 on the lower side of the line AB. Then 
with a2 as radius describe semicircle below the 
line AB; lastly with a3 as radius describe semi- 
circle above the line and the figure is complete. 
These examples, and what may be deduced 
from them, will be quite enough to satisfy the 
requirements of the draftsman who does not 
intend to follow this art further than as an aid 




Fig. 75. 

to his profession as a builder and workman, so 
now I will offer a few pages on straight line 
work. 

LINE WORK 

In previous pages I gave a few suggestions 
regarding line work done with the ruling pen, 
and I now supplement them by submitting the 
following examples numbered from Fig. 76 to 
78 inclusive, which the student is advised to 



86 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



draw and redraw, first by measuring off the 
distances, and then by attempting to get the 
exact distances without measurement. If the 
lines in the examples are placed less than one- 
sixteenth of an inch apart, they will appear, at a 
little distance, like an even tint of shading, and 
the closer they are the more difficult will it be 
to get the appearance quite uniform, but this 




Fig. 76. 



Fig- 77- 



Fig. 78. 



kind of work makes excellent practice for the 
pen. 

These examples are selected from a large 
number of possible combinations, as giving 
variety of practice while not appearing too 
difficult. They are, however, more difficult 
than they appear, so that they must be com- 
menced with the determination to produce very 
neat and accurate drawings. 

After drawing the border line in pencil, ^ in. 
from each edge of the paper, find by measure- 
ment the center of the paper, so that the second 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 87 

square, Fig. ^'j, may be placed in the middle, 
rule a horizontal line for the square to rest 
upon, draw the middle one in outline first, and 
then the others, each measuring 3 in. along one 
side. The spaces between the border line and 
each of the squares should be equal. In the 
upper half of the first square, Fig. 76, mark off 
equal divisions of Ya, in. each, and draw hori- 
zontal lines; then, in the lower half, mark off 
similar distances and draw vertical lines. In 
the second square, Fig. 76, equal distances must 
be set off from each of the sides, and parallel 
lines drawn, so as to make a number of com- 
plete squares. These should be drawn with a 
fine chisel-pointed pencil, and then tested by 
drawing diagonal lines from opposite corners. 
If the squares have been correctly set out, all the 
angles will be upon one or other of the diagonal 
lines. In the third square, Fig. ']Z, the inner 
squares are drawn with their angles tangent to 
the sides of the one r\ext larger. If very fine 
pencil lines are drawn across opposite angles of 
the outer square, and then two other lines 
bisecting the sides, it will be found easy to join 
up the inner squares to the points so found. 

After the squares are completed in pencil, fill 
in or line over with the ruling pen and ink. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Fig. 79. 



The set of lines shown at Fig. 79 are of 
different strength or breadth, all of which may 

______^^ be drawn by a skil- 

= ful use of the pen. 
^HBiiHiMiMM^iMHHMMMMiH ^^ slmple worlc of 

this kind the lines 
need not be pen- 
ciled only perhaps, 
to define the limits 
of the lines. 

Fig. 80 gives 
practice in draw- 
ing dotted lines. 
Such lines are 
necessary in all kinds of working drawings. The 
more important 
ones should be first 
drawn with pencil. 
These methods 
of lining should be 
practiced until the 
student can make 
them clear and 
clean without much 
effort. The illus- 
tration shown at 
Fig. 81 exhibits a metnod ot cross lines, m 



Fig. 80. 

method of cross lines. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



making of which the student must be careful 
and see that one set of lines are perfectly dry 
before being crossed by the others. It is well 
to try the pen upon a separate piece of paper 
before applying it to the drawing. 

Where the 
drawings are 
complex or very 
particular, they 
should always 
be made first in 
pencil and inked 
in afterwards; 
then, if any cor- 
rections are nec- 
essary, they may 
be made before 
the inking is done, and the superficial lines 
can be taken out by erasing them. To erase 
strong pencil marks requires hard rubbing, 
which destroys the surface of the paper. Be 
careful in making pencil lines and do not get in 
more than are wanted, as confusion in inking is 
sure to follow if too many lines are in evidence. 

The penciling being done, the drawing may be 
inked in, but before starting the following 
instructions must be considered. The drawing 



^ I 



Fig. 



90 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



pen is filled by dropping the ink between the 
nibs while held in a nearly vertical position, as 
before stated. The pen can be used with a 
straight edge ruler; the taper to the point is 
sufficient to throw it far enough away from the 
edge to prevent blotting if care is taken. The 
breadth of the line is regulated by adjusting the 
screw. If the pen is not in use, even for a short 

time, be sure to 
take out the ink 
with a blotter and 
dry the pen thor- 
oughly. The nibs 
should be kept per- 
fectly bright and 
clean. The liquid 
India ink which 
comes in bottles is 
nowgenerallyused. 
This much being thoroughly understood, I will 
now try and give a few hints as to the proper 
method of using the drawing pen. Fig. 82 shows 
the method of holding the pen. The pen is held 
between the thumb and two forefingers, and 
carried along the ruler from left to right, with 
the flat blades always parallel to the direction 
of the line; otherwise the pen will either be 




Fig. 82. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 91 

running on the edge of the blade only, or in such 
a position that the ink cannot flow freely from 
its points. The result in either case would be a 
broken or ragged line, a condition to be avoided, 
or a bad drawing will result. 

In marking off dimensions on a drawing, a 
system of rough lines is generally adopted which 
is illustrated at Fig. St,, when a dimension is 
shown guiding the sight from arrow-point to 

^^ • - - • - • • > 

< > 

Fig. 83. 

arrow-point. These lines should consist of 
strokes not more than one-sixteenth of an inch 
long and should have not less than a quarter of 
an inch space between them. It will be worth 
while to measure these distances for a few 
times at first when drawing them so as to get 
into the practice of getting them about right, 
though in a very short time the draftsman will 
be able to strike the distances near enough with- 
out measuring. When making finished draw- 
ings in practice, it is found best, when inking in,. 
to use straight blue or red ink lines terminating 
at the ends by black arrow-heads. 

When it is desired to show the interior con- 



92 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

struction of any object, an imaginary cut is made 
through it, and the representation of the cut 
surface is called a section. The direction of the 
cut is marked upon the original drawing by a 



Fig. 84. 

line of section, formed of strokes and dots placed 
alternately, with a letter at each end, as A B 
upon Fig. 84. This line is usually in red ink, 
but as all the work in the present lessons is 
black and white, this dotted section line may be 
made the same as the other lines. 

The mode of marking off distances between 
two points is shown at Fig. 85, where the 



. 6'. 4/2" 



Fig. 85. 

arrow-heads mark the limitation; that is, the 
distance between the lines which are touched by 
the points of the arrows, is 6 feet four and a 
half inches. This is marked off regardless of 
scale, and the method will be found useful when 
roughing out a house plan, elevation, or other 
similar work, as the dimensions of rooms, sizes 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



93 



of windows and doors, heights of ceiHngs, and 
all other dimensions can be given without draw- 
ing to scale. I will have more to say of this 
later on. 



THE LEAD PENCIL 



So far I have said but little regarding the lead 
pencil, which is a very important factor in the 





Fig. 86. 



Fig. 87. 



draftsman's hands. As before stated, all draw- 
ings of any importance should first be made in 
pencil; and a hard pencil should be used for the 
purpose; in fact, there should be two pencils, 
one of which should be pointed similar to those 
shown at Fig. 86, and the other should be 
sharpened with a chisel-point similar to those 
shown at Fig. ^j. These two illustrations, Figs. 
86 and ^j, show two methods of sharpening, 
either of which will answer the purpose quite 
well. 



94 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

The pencil should be used solely at first for 
practicing, and the most expensive drawing 
pencils are often the most economical to use in 
drawing. There are many well-known makes 
that may be depended upon to work smoothly 
and evenly without grittiness or inequality of 
texture. The number of H's marked upon the 
pencil indicates its relative hardness. For 
general use those marked H or HH will be 
suitable, while for particularly fine work 
HHHHHH may be necessary. For roughly 
sketching details on a large scale, a very soft 
lead, such as BBB, will be found pleasantest to 
work with. Pencils of unvarnished cedar are to 
be preferred, and those of a hexagonal section 
do not roll off the sloping surface of the draw- 
ing-board or desk. 

Almost the first lesson for a draftsman is how 
to properly sharpen a pencil, which is not easy 
for the beginner to accomplish satisfactorily. A 
pencil point should be well sharpened so that 
when the pencil is passing along the edge of the 
square it should be close against it; and in 
ordinary drawing or tracing, a clear view should 
be obtained completely around it on the paper. 

A round point wears away very rapidly, and 
will hardly make even one fine line, whereas if 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



95 



the edge be kept the full thickness of the lead 
in the direction of the line the pencil will last 
very much longer and produce better work; the 
flat faces of the lead point may be slightly 
rounded. 

If properly sharpened, one operation of the 
knife on the wood will be sufficient to allow of 
several re-sharpenings of the lead, whilst a 
badly-sharpened point requires further hacking 





of the wood every time the lead is slightly worn. 
Fig. 88 shows the T-square and pencil with 
the two hands in position for drawing an 
ordinary horizontal line. The pencil should be 
upright when looking in the lengthways direction 
of the line, and sloping about five degrees from 
the upright in the direction in which it is being 
arawn, as would be seen at right angles to the 
line, and in Fig. 89 the method of holding the 
pencil for freehand or tracing work is shown. 
This is on a larger scale in order to show the 



96 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 6. 

This plate shows the draftsman how to prepare 
details so that they may be followed by the actual 
workman. This shows some details of the 
porch, giving the construction of cornice and 
other work. 

This is shown here to a scale of one quarter 
of an inch to the foot. It represents, of course, 
a portion of the cottage. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 97 



96 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Plate.! 






■c^ ^^^ 4 >^x\x<^^^x:< ^^^^^^ 




\r 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 97 




96 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



1 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 97 

manner of holding the pencil for this kind of 
work. 

After this from each edge of the paper mark 
off ^ in. and draw a border line all round, with 
plain square corners. The three fingers at the 
back of the stock of the T-square keep it close 
to the edge of the board, which is not easy to do 
at first starting, but with a little patience and 
perseverance every border line can be drawn 
with equal facility. It is important to note that 
all pencil lines upon a drawing should be thin; 



4-. 



Fig. 90. Fig. 91. 

if made thick they cannot be inked over so 
neatly, and the paper will have a greasy feel to 
the pen. The india rubber should be used very 
sparingly and if possible only after a drawing is 
completely inked in. 

A pencil line drawn in error should have a 
wavy mark across it, as in Fig. 90, and one 
drawn full, but intended to be inked in dotted, 
should be marked as in Fig. 91 ; this is instead 
of rubbing them out at the time. Another 
fundamental principle is always to draw a line 
far enough at the first attempt, but not to draw 
it beyond the distance it is known to be wanted. 



98 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

An unnecessary line takes time to draw, wastes 
the pencil point, and takes time to rub out; all 
matters of moment when excellence is in view. 
Of course, all corrections must be made whilst 
the drawing is in pencil, for a drawing, while in 
ink, cannot be corrected, without great injury- 
being done to it, as erasions of ink spoil the 
surface of the paper and disfigure the whole 
work. 




W -^ 'sTANDARDr ; ■ 

^" }' 50-5- ■ ' - 

Fig. 92. 

When a drawing is completed, the pencil lines 
may be erased by using a proper rubber similar 
to that shown at Fig. 92, which can be pur- 
chased for a few cents. Some of these erasers 
are made so that one end of them is specially 
devised for rubbing out pencil lines while the 
other end is intended for erasing ink lines. 
Never use the ink end when it can possibly be 
avoided, as it will destroy the fine surface of the 
paper and disfigure the drawing. 

When it can be afforded, it is best to buy a 
case of assorted pencils. They will come 
cheaper this way, and a case will last for years 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 99 

and the draftsman will always have at hand 
pencils to suit all sorts of work. Faber's pencils 
were considered the best for many years, but 
they are rapidly being driven out of the market 
by pencils of American manufacture. Dixon's 
pencils are excellent and may be relied upon to 
give good results, but, in my own practice I 
make use of "Eagle Pencils" and find in them 
the best of satisfaction. This, however, is per- 
haps after all merely a matter of taste, a pref- 
erence for a name or firm. 

Pencils — like all other drawing appliances — 
should be kept in a case and should always be 
in order for work, so that in a hurried job, there 
will be no need to hunt all over for a pencil, or 
a knife to sharpen it. These few hints regarding 
pencils will, I hope, prove useful to the young 
draftsman. 

PRELIMINARY ROUGH SKETCHES 

Often workmen are called upon to make a 
rough sketch of a piece of work before making 
a drawing of it in order to get a fair under- 
standing with the employer. A rough sketch 
taken off-hand with dimensions put on in figures 
will often give to the person ordering the work 
a clear idea of what he intends and thus 



100 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF 



TAUGHT 



t^ . 



vs/ 





-4W 



n 



- 1 -2-1.0 



i-a 






B ~p K 






C9t 



^r 



P.V£|5.^/'^/'^.€r-^ 






Fig. 93. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 101 

prevent disputes, annoyances and misunder- 
standings. 

Rough sketches may be made of any size and 
without reference to scale or regard to exactness, 
providing always, the dimensions are given. In 
order to illustrate this I show a rough sketch of 
a house plan at Fig. 93. We suppose, for 
instance, a man wants a small house; in the 
house he desires a parlor 18x20 feet, a dining 
room 18x20 feet and a kitchen 18x22 feet, and a 
side hall with stairway, 6'6", length of the house, 
with all the necessary windows, bays, and doors, 
also chimneys and fire-places. The whole may 
be drawn, without scale, as shown in the pur- 
posely rough illustration. This at once gives a 
correct idea of the plan of the house and the 
general lay out. After satisfying all the con- 
ditions required in the plan, a rough sketch of 
the elevation, showing height of ceilings, pitch 
of roof, windows and other necessaries; may be 
reduced to scale and drawn on paper in regular 
order. Another rough sketch is shown at Fig. 
94, on a much smaller basis. I do not advise 
making these sketches too small, particularly if 
they are intended to submit to a prospective 
owner, as then they are apt to be misleading. 

Any one acquainted with building matters or 



102 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



-^—■^'2^ i=-^ ^ -i 



the reading of plans, will have no difficulty 
whatever in thoroughly understanding these 
rough sketches, or in making a scale drawing 
from them, if they have the least knowledge of 
drawing. The windows and 
doors are shown so far as posi- 
tion is concerned, and are 
marked respectively, W and 
D. Where the dimensions of 
these are decided upon, these 
^^ dimensions may be marked on 
the plan, and a rough sketch 
of the elevation given; if for 
a door, make it as shown in 95, 
showing number of panels, 
and in such style as intended. 
If the door is elaborate, then, 
of course greater pains will 
have to be taken, and this can 
best be done by making it a 
scale drawing. If the design 
wanted is for a window, then 
a rough sketch may be made similar to the 
one shown at Fig. 96, which is a simple 6 light 
window. A more elaborate sash is shown at 97, 
which may be roughed out to the style shown, 
or to any other style desireti. 




Fig. 94- 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



103 



These five rough examples are quite sufficient 
to convey to the student an idea of how he can 
lay out a rough sketch from which he may 
construct an exact scale drawing. In the plans 
shown, I have not given thickness of walls; this 



k 



i^/f/if/nrnminifF. 



) K 



h'. oy -— > 




Fig. 95. Fig. 96. 

the draftsman can arrange when he plots out 
his plan. 

I now present a few examples which show the 
method of marking off measurements and show- 
ing the thickness of walls, dimensions of windows, 
etc. The illustration shown at Fig. 98 is sup- 
posed to be the front of a building having a front 
entrance and windows, and an "over-all" meas- 



104 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



urement of 3q'6". This shows i8'o" for the pro- 
jection, and 2i'6" for the reserved part. 

These measurements should be again sub- 
divided, showing the lengths of brickwork, 
widths of openings, etc.; and the line of meas- 
urements inside gives the 
thickness of the walls, di- 
mensions of rooms, etc. The 
distance that the part pro- 
jects should also be noted 
as shown by 30". The in- 
side measurements and the 
smaller dimensions should 
exactlyagree with the "over- 
all" measurement given. 

In drawing pencil lines 
they should always be 
drawn longer than the ac- 
tual length of the lines to 
be inked in, so that the 
exact point of intersection 
with other lines can be better 
seen. When the drawing has been inked in, these 
extra lengths, of course, have to be cleaned oft 
with india rubber, as well as a great many other 
pencil lines which are necessary in the process 
of making the drawing, but which form no part 




Fig. 97. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 105 

of the finished drawing. These "construction 
lines," as they are called, should be drawn as 
lightly as possible, so as to be easily removed 
without greatly damaging the surface of the 
paper. When drawing circles or arcs of circles 
with the compasses, a little pencil mark should 
be made round the center point, so that it can 
be found without any trouble when it is desired 
to ink in the drawing. It is useless to draw in 



Fig. 98. 

pencil every one of a long series of circles or 
arcs which are alike; it will be more expeditious 
to mark the centers only after drawing one or 
two, for in the inking-in of the work when the 
compasses are once set to the correct radius, the 
centers will be all that is required to draw them 
in full. 

Every working drawing when it leaves the 
draftsman should be carefully and completely 
figured as shown in Fig. 98. A little time spent 
in figuring builders' drawings, so that the sizes 



106 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

of window and door openings, thickness of walls, 
etc., are clearly stated, will save time, worry 
and inconvenience. A measurement of feet 
only should always have a cipher in the place of 
the inches as 280", and arrow-heads, as before 
described, should show the extreme limits of the 
intended dimensions. Perhaps it may not be 
necessary to explain to the student the use of 
the foot and inch marks, ' and " which should 
always be placed over dimensions figures The 
single mark denoting feet, and the double mark 
representing inches, when employed they greatly 
assist in reading of plans. 

Vertical measurements showing the height of 
rooms or stories are best figured from floor to 
floor — rarely from floor to ceiling — but allowance 
must be made for the depth of joists and thick- 
ness of floor and ceiling. The height of windows 
should be always figured from the top of the sill 
to the underside of the head, and their position 
from the level of the floor to the top of the sill, 
this giving exactly the opening in the frame or 
brickwork. When a drawing is carefully figured 
it is much easier for the workman to understand, 
and mistakes and misunderstandings are less 
liable to occur. 

We have now reached a point where the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 107 

Student may venture to attempt a rough draw- 
ing for a small cottage, and to this end the 
following illustrations are submitted. 

We will suppose that a brick cottage 31 feet 
long and 196" wide is to be built, having three 
rooms and a hall on main floor, a cellar, and 
attic containing three bedrooms, and attic. The 
foundation is to be of stone, the superstructure 
of bricks, and the roof of wood, shingled. 
Having the paper properly tacked on the draw- 



Fig. 99. 

ing board, ready for work, we next decide upon 
a scale. I would suggest a scale of four feet to 
the inch; that is, each quarter of an inch should 
represent one foot of the building; and as this is 
an easy scale, and one that can be readily under- 
stood by the student, he will have no trouble in 
dealing with it. A scale is shown at Fig. 99. 
Of course, the quarter inch must be divided into 
twelve parts — which will be found on any good 
rubber or ivory scale — then square off a fine 
pencil line from your left hand across the paper 
near the lower edge of the board. From this 
line, draw another at a convenient point at right 
angles to the first line. Make these lines with a 



108 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



fine pointed HB pencil, and so light that they 
may be easily erased. From the junction of the 
two lines, F, Fig. lOO, measure off 7^ inches, 
which will equal 31 quarter inches, which again 
represent 31 feet by scale. From this point, B, 
square up another line. From E to F, is a 






Fig. 100. Cellar Plan. 

distance of 4^ inches, which contains 19 quarter 
inches and one }i of an inch. The 19 quarter 
inches represent 19 feet on scale, and the j4 of 
an inch represents 6 inches, thus, making the 
total distance between E and F, 19 feet and 6 
inches. Square over from E to A, and the lines 
A B, E F, form the boundary of the cellar plan. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 109 

The cellar walls are supposed to be of stone, and 
are therefore i8 inches thick, so we measure off, 
working to the inside always, ^ of an inch, 
which according to our scale, represents i ft. 6 
in., the proper thickness of the wall. 

It will be noticed that at R we have projected 
the wall inside the cellar; this projection is 
intended to carry the chimney and fireplace. 
Here we show two projections, but in practice 
the projection is made in one as shown by the 
dotted lines. The same is also done with the 
chimney foundation shown at S. While the 
shaded parts shown would be ample to carry the 
chimney and fireplace above, it is generally 
more economical to make a solid block of stone- 
work, as shown by the dotted lines. In actual 
practice, the first stones laid should project 
beyond the faces of the wall six or more inches 
on each side in order to give the foundation a 
wider base. These bottom stones are called 
"footings." They should never be less than 6 
inches thick. 

The partition V is built of bricks laid on stone 
footings. This wall is nine inches thick — the 
length of a brick — and runs up to the floor joists. 
The partition on the opposite side of the stair- 
way is a studded, lathed and plastered one. The 



110 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



openings, O, O, are for the cellar windows and 
are three feet (^ inch) wide. The framework 
outside the windows are curbs, built around the 
windows to prevent the earth from filling in 
against the glass. The student need not mind 
the shading unless he desires to fill in the walls. 




Fig. loi. First Floor Plan. 

This sketch is now a complete plan of the cellar, 
and one that can be worked to. 

It will now be in order to draw the first floor 
plan, as shown in Fig. loi. Proceed the same 
as before, only in this case the outer walls are 
made ]i inch thick, which represents one foot, 
making the wall one and one-half bricks thick. 
Measure off the openings as shown, making the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 111 




Fig. 102. Attic Plan. 

Window openings which are represented by three 
lines running through the openings {^/( inch 
wide), which is three feet. The two door open- 



rff 



C 



,_jir^ 



B 



I , , 1 



DO 



DD 



J C 



ffl 

ffi 



Fig. 103. Front Elevation. 



J 12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 7. 

Plate 7 exhibits a portion of cornice and roof 
of main building. This shows the construction, 
with roof boards and shingles, also the finished 
portion of roof and cornice. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 113 

ings are 13-16 inch, or 3 feet 3 in. Measure off 
the partitions and lay off to sizes as figured. Be 



311VJWH 111 L1113 pidll. J. lie pHJjeULlV-»lX3 3H«^W11 0.1 

the doors are steps. 



J 12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 







ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



113 



ings are 13-16 inch, or 3 feet 3 in. Measure off 
the partitions and lay off to sizes as figured. Be 
n^rf^fu] tn have the chimnevs and fireolaces. R. 




siiw vm 



the doors are steps. 



il2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



113 



ings are 13-16 inch, or 3 feet 3 in. Measure off 
the partitions and lay off to sizes as figured. Be 
careful to have the chimneys and fireplaces, R. 




Fig. 104. End Elevation and Section. 

R. S., directly over those in the cellar. The 
stairs in cellar are directly under the stairs as 
shown in this plan. The projections shown at 
the doors are steps. 



14 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



The plan shown at Fig. 102 -is for the attic 
story. A part of the height of this will run up 
into the roof as will be shown in section Fig. 104. 
Here the chimneys take another shape and are 
"drawn in" to suit the flues. The partitions are 
varied and the stairs land in the hall by three 




105. Fig. 106. 

winders. The windows are not so wide as those 
in the stories below, only being 2 ft. 3 in. in the 
openings. Measure off the rooms as they are 
figured, making the partitions of 2x4 in. studs, 
and marking off the newel and rail for stairs as 
shown. 

The elevation shown at Fig. 103 requires but 
little explanation, as it is simple and easily 
understood. The windows are 3 feet wide in the 
opening and 5 ft. 3 in. from lintel to sill; so, 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



115 



keeping these figures in mind, the window and 
sashes may be laid out readily. The door, from 
floor to lintel, including fanlight, is 8 feet high, 
by 3 ft. 3 in. in width. The rest is easy. 

A part of the end elevation and a sectional 
view are shown at Fig. 104. In the section the 




Fig. 107. 

foundation footing is shown at O; the projection 
of door- steps is also shown on the ground line. 

All these examples should first be made in 
pencil, after which, when corrected, they may be 
"filled in" with ink. 

I have mentioned something regarding "foot- 
ings" for foundations and it may not be out of 
place at this point to sa}^ something more of 



116 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



them. The illustration shown at Fig. 105 shows 
the footing and a portion of section of wall that 

would be suitable for 



/ / / / 




Fig. 108, 



the brick partition 
running through the 
cellar of the cottage 
we have just dis- 
cussed. Here is a 
flat stone footing 
with three courses of 
bricks on top before 
^^ the regular wall com- 
mences. The dotted 
lines show the top of 
cellar floor whether it be plank or cement. When 
the whole foundation and wall are to be of stone, 
the student may lay it off in accordance with 
the class of ma- 
sonry employed. 
One method of 
showing square 
rubble work in 
a wall, is exhib- 
ited at Fig. 106. ^'^- '°9- 
This shows a section of the wall, through B, at Fig. 
107. Coursed rubble work is shown at Fig. 108, 
while random rubble work is shown at Fig. 109. 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



117 



In this style of masonry, the wall is brought to a 
level throughout its length at about every 12 or 
14 inches, in height, so as to form courses of 
that depth. This wall is built of stones rough 
from the quarry, regardless of size or shape. 

Another style of masonry built up of irregular 
stones that have been broken up from large 
field stones is 
shown at Fig. no, 
The foundation 
and corners are 
built up of squared 
stones. This kind 
of work is some- 
times called irreg- 
ular rubble, rustic 
work, or field stone 
masonry. It does 
very well for garden walls, retaining walls, cel- 
lar walls for small buildings, but should not be 
used where great strength is required. 

Block course masonry is where the courses of 
stone run in straight horizontal lines as shown 
at Fig. III. Ashler masonry is built up in 
courses of more or less uniform depth, generally 
from 10 to 14 inches deep, ranging with the 
quoins or corners, and other dressings; it goes 




Fig. no. 



118 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



by different names, according to the face put 
upon the stone — from quarry-pitched, or rock 
ashler, to wrought ashler. A sample of the work 
is shown in Fig. 112. 

There are many other forms of stonework, 
but the examples given are quite sufficient for 
the purposes of this work, and other forms may 
well be left to the trained architect. Perhaps a 



r 




■•"■iiiiiiit^-: ■, 




ki^ 1 


p*' : 


l|l""U:-r. ,1:. 


:M 








«;"«'"'"liii 


''l!PC.mi:.,M 






ps?5' 


■ -Mir 




F 






*^:::;:''-'''l':i*'::■ 


ii'",:,„«;,. 


Rm '■ |.-M'I|II 


'^lidliii' 


Jill"'- ■„::•• 

'fill lii'i'i"'"'- 


li^:,,iiiii 





Fig. III. 

few examples of brickwork will not be out of 
place at this point, as they will give to the 
student a slight insight into the manner of 
"bonding," which is quite an important matter in 
brickbuilding. 

At Fig. 113, the end section of a single brick, 
or 9 inch wall, is shown, having a two brick or 
18 inch footing. This will be easily understood 
as will also the section shown at Fig. 114. The 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



119 



latter shows the section of a brick and a hall 
Wall, known generally as a 14 inch wall. The 
looting for this is formed of three bricks. 



llMllfl 



If* 



^ 'il'jili',' 



«.'f, 



Ml 



111 



Wtf : :,|' 



.illllllp.- "Ml 



p' 



mi 



iki 



"lift*' 



id% 



Fig, 112. 

making it 28 inches wide. The footing is 
diminished until it is only two bricks wide on 
which the actual wall commences. Other thick- 



Z] 



Fig. 113. 



Fig. 114. 



nesses of walls are formed on the same principle 

so other examples of this kind are unnecessary. 

At Fig. 115 I show two plans of an 18 inch 



1^0 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



wall which illustrates the method of "bonding-" 
or breaking joints. I also show a section of the. 
wall shaded. 

Before proceeding further, it may be well to 
explain the meaning of the term "bond," or 
"bonding." "Bond" is an arrangement of bricks 



2-Brick WaU. 









PlOM^ Gnaws 






t.S.S 










































1 













Stctien 




\ 






Tbm^Ontnt 


*■ 










1 





































Fig. 115. 

or stones placed in juxtaposition so as to 
prevent the vertical or plumb joint between any 
two bricks or stones falling into a continuous 
straight line with that between any other two. 
This is called "breaking joint," and when it i« 
not properly carried out, that is, when two or 
more joints do fall into the same line, as at x y. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 121 

Fig ii6, they form what is called a straight 
joint. Straight joints split up and weaken the 
part of the wall in which they occur, and should 
therefore be avoided. A good bond breaks the 
vertical joints, both in the length and thickness 
of the wall, giving the bricks or stones a good 
lap over one another in both directions, so as to 
afford as much hold as possible between the 
different parts of the wall. 



^^^ 



r~T 



1 ■ ^ 



I 



0-, t , I, I, i ^^ r 



Fig. 1 1 6. 

A further effect of bond is to distribute the 
pressure which comes upon each brick over a 
large number of bricks below it. Thus, in Fig. 
ii6, there is a proper bond among the bricks 
forming the face of the wall, and the pressure 
upon the brick A is communicated to every brick 
within the triangle A, B, C. 

A defective bond, either in brickwork or 
masonry, may look very well upon the face of 
the work, as in Fig. ii6, where the bricks 
regularly break joint vertically, but in which 



122 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

there is no bond whatever across the thickness 
of the wall, which, it will be seen, is reaily 
composed of two distinct slices of brickwork, 
each 4^ inches thick, and having no connction 
with one another, except that afforded by the 
mortar. To avoid this defect, the bricks or 
stones forming a wall are not all laid in the 
same direction as in Fig. ii6, but some are laid 
parallel to the length of the wall and others at 
right angles to them, so that the length of one 
of the latter overlaps the width of the two below 
it, as shown in Fig. 115. In this figure, a wall is 
shown in section at the top, two bricks in 
thickness. The second dia,gram shows a plan of 
the courses, 2, 4, 6, as numbered in the section, 
while the lower diagram shows the plan of the 
courses, as they are laid in the wall, of the 
courses numbered i, 3, 5, in the section. 

When bricks are laid lengthwise in the wall, 
as shown in Fig. 117, they are called "stretchers"; 
when they are laid across the wall, as in Fig. 
118, they are called "headers." "Stretchers" 
are bricks or stones which lie parallel to the 
length of the wall, those in the exterior of the 
work showing one side in the face of the wall. 

"Headers" are bricks or stones whose lengths 
lie across the thickness of the walls, the ends, or 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



123 



"heads," of those thin walls like the diagram, or 
in the outside of thick walls, being visible on the 
face. 

If the student copies these examples and 
thinks as he draws, grasping the reasons why 



Fig. 117. 



Fig. 11! 



the bricks are laid in the manner shown, he will 
accomplish two purposes, learning to draw and 
acquiring a constructive knowledge. 

There are a variety of "bonds" in brickwork, 
all of which it will be necessary for the archi- 
tectural student to be familiar with, and I pro- 
pose to offer a few examples for practice and to 
explain them at the same time. 

The bond chiefly used in this country for 
ordinary work is called running "bond." This 
consists of three, four or five running courses of 
stretchers, and then a course of headers, as 
shown in Fig. 119, where there are three courses 
of stretchers and one course of headers. The 
small portions of bricks, or "bats," designated by 



124 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



XXXX, are termed closers, and are required to 
fill out the courses. 

In English 'bond" there Is in the face wall a 
course of headers, then a course of stretchers, 
and so on all the way. This arrangement is for 
the front of the wall, and in the thick walls the 
bricks are made to join in to the best advantage. 



H 


1 1 


1 1 1 1 1 1 \ 






1 1 1 1 \ 






1 1 1 1 \ 






II II' 




H 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 




r 








1 1 1 1 


\ 






\ 


H 


II II 1 II 1 1 


1/ 


1 




j 




1 1 1 1 1 


i 




1 1 1 1 


\ 


H 


1 \ 


MINI 


11 



Fig. 1 19. 

Thus, an English bond nine-inch wall will have 
for each course of stretchers two rows side by- 
side, breaking joint horizontally. The joints in 
the inside courses should be one-half the width 
of the brick from the vertical joints of the 
stretchers above and below. A fourteen inch 
wall in English bond is shown at Fig. 120, which 
represents four courses in elevation, and the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



125 



second course and the top course, from the top, 
in plan. It is absolutely necessary in this wall 
to have a row of headers back of the stretchers, 
as if they were all stretchers in this course, there 
would be a mortar joint all the way up through 



I I I I I I I I 



I I I I I I I I I 



^ 



^--t 



ELKVATION 













_ 














1 




1 









FLAN OF COURSE 


A 




















1 









































PLAN OF COURSE B 
Fig. I20. 

the wall along the line A B. There are shown 
two ways to make the headers in any course; 
break joints with the stretchers in the same 
course. In the plan of course A at the left- 
hand end there will be seen a closer X, which is 
half of a brick split lengthwise. This piece, 



126 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



9X2%^X2 J^, being put in next to the last stretcher. 
In the plan of course B it will be seen that the 
same thing is done by using three-quarter bricks 
laid flatwise. 

The example shown at 121 exhibits several 



1 1 1 1 1 --w>.l III 1 


1 11 1 1 /\ \ V//S- 1 II II 


II II ^ \ \ VV / / K II 11 1 


1 11; 


^x95^^/>/ 


\ 1 1 { 


'11 1 


i/\ 


/\\ II 1 


1 1 


^^M 


y\ 1 1 II 






1 1 V^ 


^'\y^\ 1 1 1 


1 1 /^^ 


vV ^-^ 1 1 ' 


1 1 /^^ 


V^ \^*^l 1 1 


1 1 /L,^ 


. xv --A 1 1 1 


1 /~~-^ 


l\ "V \ ^ 1 1 


1 1 /-. 


y^^^^^ 


N.\ji \l 1 1 


1 L r~ 


\\ T" 1 1 1 


1 1 1 


W " il 1 1 


1 1 1 


s 


1 1 i 1 






1 II 


w 




II 11 






1 1 1 


' '1 1 'f'i I 






1 1 


1 1 1 1 






1 1 1 


'11 II 






1 1 1 


i 1 1 ' ' 







Fig 121. 

Styles ot laying bricks; C shows the arch A, 
herring bone filling over a window, S, a stone 
sill, F the general brickwork and W the window 
opening. This is a good example to draw, 
though it is not by any means good architecture. 
These examples are sufficient for my purpose, 



a£,c-hitectural drawing self taught 127 

and should the student desire to know more 
about the bonding of brickwork, he may procure 
a copy of a manual on brick and stone work I 
have in preparation, and which will be published 
by Drake & Co. shortly. 

DRAWING ARCHES 

It is absolutely necessary the draftsman 
should know how to draw the forms of arches 
that are in common use, and in order to instruct 





Fig. 123. 

him on this point, the following examples are 
submitted for him to study and work out. The 
arch shown at Fig. 122 is simply a semicircular 
one, and the simple line of arch is drawn from 
a center as shown. When an arch of this form 
is used for brick or stone work as shown at Fig. 
123, a new set of conditions arise, as the joints 
of the bricks or stone must be shown so that the 
right bevels or angles may be given them. 
These joints all radiate to the center of the arch 
as shown. It may not be out of place at this 



128 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 8. 

This plate shows the outside of a plain window 
frame, a door frame, corner board, and a 
sectional elevation of sash and frame. This is a 
very simple plate, and the young draftsman will 
find no difficulty in re-drawing these details. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 129 



(7) The IJN 1 K/iUi^o ui owA XXXV.. rch 



128 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




1 



: , 



Plate.S 



Out jiDE Frames and Coi 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 129 



k 



\ \ 



(7) The INTRADOS or SOFFIT of an arch 



128 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 129 

point to give a description of the arch, with the 
terms used in connection therewith, and, I may 
say, the definitions given apply to all other 
arches as well as to the one in Fig. 123: 

(i) The SPAN of an arch is the distance 
between the points of support, which is generally 
the width of the opening to be covered, as A B. 
These points are called the springing points; 
the mass against which the arch rests is called 
the ABUTMENT. 

(2) The RISE, HEIGHT OR VERSED 
SINE of an arch is the distance from C to D. 

(3) The SPRINGING LINE of an arch is the 
line A B, being a horizontal line drawn across 
the tops of the support where the arch 
commences. 

(4) The CROWN of an arch is the highest 
point, as D. 

(5) VOUSSOIRS is the name given to the 
stones forming the arch. 

(6) The KEYSTONE is the center or upper- 
most voussoir, D. so called because it is the last 
stone set, and wedges or keys the whole 
together. Keystones are frequently allowed to 
project from the faces of the wall and in some 
buildings are very elaborately carved. 

(7) The INTRADOS or SOFFIT of an arch 



130 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

is the under side of the voussoirs forming the 
curve. 

(8) The EXTRADOS or BACK is the upper 
side of the voussiors. 

(9) The THRUST of an arch is the tendency 
which all arches have to descend in the middle, 
and to overturn or thrust asunder the points of 
support. The amount of the thrust of an arch 
depends on the proportions between the rise and 
the span; that is to say, the span and zveight to 
be supported being definite, the thrust will be 
diminished in proportion as the rise of the arch 
is increased, and the thrust will be increased in 
proportion as the crown of the arch is lowered. 

(10) The JOINTS of an arch are the lines 
formed by the adjoining faces of the voussoirs; 
these should generally radiate to some definite 
point, and each should be perpendicular to a 
tangent to the curve of each joint. In all curves 
composed of arcs of circles, a tangent to the 
curve at any point will be perpendicular to a 
radius drawn from the center of the circle 
through that point, consequently the joints in 
all such arches should radiate to the center of 
the circle of which the curve forms a part. 

(11) The BED of an arch is the top of the 
abutment; the shape of the bed depends on the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 131 

quality of the curve, and is explained in the 
diagrams. 

(12) A RAMPART ARCH is one in which the 
springing lines are not on the same level 

(13) A STRAIGHT ARCH or, as it is more 
properly called, a plat-band, Is formed of a row 
of wedge shaped bricks or stones of equal 
depth placed in a horizontal line; the upper 
ends of the pieces being broader than the lower, 
prevents them from falling down. 

(14) ARCHES are named from the shape of 
the curve of the underside, and are either simple 
or complex. The simple curves may be defined 
as those that are described from one center, 
as Fig. 122, or by a continuous motion, as the 
ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, cycloid, and 
epicycloid; and complex arches are those 
which are described from two 

or more fixed centers, as many 
of the Gothic and Moorish 
arches are. 

Fig. 124 shows the manner 
of drawing a segmental arch. 
The center of this is below the springing lines. 
A segmental arch, drawn out for brickwork, 
is shown at Fig. 125, in which the joint lines are 
marked off. 




132 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



A segmental arch drawn from two centers is 
shown at Fig. 126. The centers are shown so 
that the student will have no trouble in describ- 





Fig. 125 



Fig. 



[26. 



ing it. The joints for brick or stone work may 
be laid out around this arch, by using the centers 
as fixed points and running radial lines through 
the curved lines. 

The diagram shown at Fig. 127 illustrates a 





V 

Fig. 127 



Tudor arch. It is struck from three centers as 
shown. It is sometimes called an elliptical 
Gothic arch, and may be struck as follows: 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 133 

Divide the span, ad, Fig. 128, into three equal 
parts by the points, ef. From a, with radius a,/, 
describe an arc, and from e,f, and d, describe 
similar arcs, which intersect at ij. Now bisect 
the span, ad, and raise a perpendicular to t. 
Draw a line through if and je, and produce 
these lines. With compasses from y with radius, 
fd, describe arc to j, and from e, with the same 
radius, describe a similar arc to nh. Then from 
i with radius ij, describe arc, ji, and from / same 
radius, the curve hi, when the interior curve of 
the arch will be completed, the remainder of the 
arch being set out in the usual manner. 

The elliptical arch can best be described with 
the trammel shown at Fig. 69, or with a string 
as described at Fig. 68, but the joints for brick 
or stone work must be obtained by a method 
very different from that illustrated for circular 
arches. To obtain the correct lines for the 
elliptical arch shown at Fig. 129, we must pro- 
ceed as follows: Let ZZ be the foci, and B a 
point on the intrados where a joint is required; 
from ZZ draw lines to B, bisect the angle at B 
by a line drawn through the intersecting arcs 
D produced for the joint to F. Joints at i and 
2 are found in the same manner. The joints for 
the opposite side of the arch may be transferred 



134 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



as shown. The semi-axes of the ellipse, H G, 
G K, are in the same ratio as G E to G A. The 




voussoirs near the springing line of the arch are 
thus increased in size for greater strength. 
The diagram shown at Fig. 130 shows a lancet 



A 

6— ff— !— JB-I. 




Fig. 130. 

arch. This is drawn by placing the centers of 
the curves outside the figure as at G and F. E 
O, show the width of the opening, and H J, the 
height. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 135 

A completed lancet arch is shown at Fig. 131, 
the radial or joint lines being exhibited. These 
lines are drawn from the centers in all cases. 

The diagram shown at Fig. 132 represents an 
equilateral, Gothic arch. This is drawn with the 
compasses set to the width of the opening, one 
leg being placed at the junction of the springing 
line when the other leg describes the curve of 




Fig. 132. Fig. 133. 

one side. The same process forms the other 
side of the arch. 

The completed equilateral arch is shown at 
Fig. 133, with the method of laying out the 
curves. The centers being X and Y. As before 
stated, the joints in all these arches should be 
struck at right angles to tangents of the curve, 
which in the case of arcs of circles will cause the 
joints to radiate to the center from which the 
curve is struck. There are cases, however, 
when this rule cannot be followed, as take the 
.ast illustration Fig. 133, for instance, when the 




i36 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

bonding is not what a good workman would 
desire, yet it is better than the bonding shown 
in Fig. 134, though perhaps not so handsome; 
that, however, is a matter of taste. The employ- 
ment of the method shown at Fig. 133 gets rid 
of the small angle closers which show in the 
crown of Fig. 134. To get the lines properly, as 
shown in Fig. 133, run up the 
two dotted lines at an angle 
of fifty degrees, with the 
springing line X Y, on each 
side of the arch. These are 

produced to cut through the 
Fig. 134 ^ ^ ^ 

curve lines at C and D. 

The joints of the arch from X to C are 
radiated to Y, those from D to Y to X, and 
those in the upper portion of the arch to the 
intersection of the two inner lines at B, whereby 
the bricks at the crown are eased off. In 
pointed or two-centered arches, other than 
equilateral, the same method may be followed, 
the angles of the dotted lines being greater or 
less as the circumstances of the case may require. 

In setting out gauged arches care must be 
taken to draw first a middle or "key" brick at 
the crown of the arch, the object being to pro- 
vide a brick to resist the increased strain at the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 137 

point; and secondly, to have the effect of pro- 
ducing an equal number of bricks in the arch 

excluding the key, so that it may ^ ^ 

be finished the same on each side. '\ .-y^-, / 
The next arch is drawn upon /<C ; ^)Sx 
the same principles as the ogee [.■' "•.;(' -a 
curve shown in Fig. 135, andw^th 1 '<;• r 

the construction lines 'given re- ^^' ^^^' 

quires no further explanation. It is defective as 
a scientific arch, but occurs often in the Deco- 
rated Period, towards the end of the fourteenth 
century. After that period the arches were 
made flatter, examples of which are the seg- 
mental, or two-centered, and the Tudor, or 
four-centered, arches. 

To describe an equilateral ogee arch, like 
Fig. 136, proceed as follows: Make YZ the 
given span; make YX equal YZ, bisect YZ in A; 
- ^ ^ on A as center, with A Y as ra- 

dius, describe the arcs Y B and 
Z C; on B and X as centers 
describe the arcs B D and X D, 

71^ 1 ^v and on C and X as centers de- 

scribe the arcs C E and X E; 
on E and D as centers describe 
the arcs B X and C X. 

The flat ogee arch shown at Fig. 137 requires 




138 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




some little different treatment to the previous 
one. To obtain the proper curves and centers 
for this style of arch proceed as follows: Let 
A B be the outside width 
of the arch, and C D the 
height, and let A E be the 
breadth of the rib. 

Bisect A B in C, and 

erect the perpendicular 

C D; bisect A C in F, and 

draw F J parallel to C D. 

Through D draw J K parallel to A B, and 

make D K equal to D J. 

From F set off F G equal to A E, the breadth 
of the rib, and make C H equal to C G. 

Join G J and H K; then G and H will be the 
centers for drawing the lower portion of the 
arch, J and K will be the centers for describing 
the upper portion, and the contrary curves will 
meet in the lines G J and H K. 

This style of arch is seldom used in substantial 
work other than in Gothic architecture; the 
carpenter, however, often makes use of it in 
porch, veranda and arbor work, and sometimes 
in grille work, so it is well to have a knowledge 
of it. 

Another arch, not in common use, is the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 139 

horseshoe or Moorish arch; two examples are 
shown at Figs. 138 and 139. In the first the 
curve is struck from a center situated above the 
sprir^ing Hne. This is said to be the strongest 





Fig. 138. Fig. 139. 



of all arches when properly constructed and is 
often employed for tunneling and other heavy 
work where great resisting strength is required. 

The figure shown at 139 is sometimes called a 
Gothic horseshoe arch because of its being 
pointed. It is somewhat similar to the last, but 
is struck from two centers, I and J. The special 
peculiarities of these arches is, that they are nar- 
rowed in on the springing lines, which gives to 
them a pleasing appearance. 

Often arches are formed by having them two 
or more bricks deep, or they may be rough and 
turned in half-brick rings, 4>^ inches thick, as 
shown at hh in Fig. 140. In arches of quick 
curve, with not more than 2 or 3 feet radius, 
this method is absolutely necessary to prevent 



140 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



very large points at the extrados. In the section 
of portions of small arches shown in the illus- 
tration, of which one zuw is turned, in nine inch 
rings consisting of headers. It will be seen that 




Fig. 140. 



the mortar joints in this are much wider at the 
top than those of the portion kk, built in rings 
half a brick in thickness. The line of joints in 
both these examples are radial, all being drawn 
from the center point. 

The most common — so-called arch — is what is 
termed "gauged straight arches," and with these, 
in brickwork, the draftsman will have the most 
to deal, and I purpose showing him several 
examples. Such arches are in very common use, 
and are generally 12 inches, or four courses of 
brickwork, in depth. 

The sommering or splay of the bricks depends 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



141 




Fig. 141. 



upon the angle given to the skewbacks or 
springlngs, and varies with the distance of each 
voussoir from 
the springing. 

The s k e w - 
backs are gen- 
erally inclined 
at 60° from the 
horizontal, and are struck by prolonging the sides 
of an equilateral triangle, as shown on Fig. 142. 
The joints give a better appearance when 
horizontal as at B, Fig. 141 ; but to save labor 
they are frequently formed as at A, and care- 
fully concealed by rubbing over, false horizontal 
joints being marked on the face, though in 

course of time 
the true joints 
are sure to show 
up and expose 
the sham. 

The arch 
shown at Fig. 
142 is sometimes 
called a French 
or Dutch arch. 




Fig. 142. 



It is sometimes used by builders when intended 
to be plastered or covered over. Such arches 



142 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



are unreliable, and the draftsman should never 
make them if intended to be built, unless they 
are to be built up in good Portland cement 
mortar. The joints may be arranged as shown 
at A or at B; if, as at A, only whole bricks should 
be used. 

Sometimes, in building arches of this kind, it 
may be necessary to "plug" the brickwork as 
shown at PPPP, Fig. 143, for the purpose of 




Fig. 143. 



attaching finished work to them by screws or 
other devices, and the draftsman must note this 
on his drawings in order to save future trouble. 
The manner of forming the skewbacks is shown 
in this illustration, at o o; the angle of this line 
should be about sixty degrees. 

In placing in arches of this kind, there must 
always be timber or concrete lintel behind the 
face bricks to carry the wall, and over this 
lintel, there should be a relieving arch built. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



1*3 



This latter arch is generally built up roughly 
unless it is intended to carry a great weight, then 
care must be taken in its construction. 

Before leaving the subject of arches it may 
be well to exhibit some examples in stone, and 
should the student never be called upon to 
prepare drawings for such work, their con- 




Fig. 144. 



struction on paper will make good practice. 
The example shown at Fig. 144 is a very 
common one in stonework and shows how the 
style of work is prepared. It will be seen that 
the joints are generally radial, while horizontal 
joints are formed to receive the stone above. 

Another style of opening in stonework is 
shown at Fig. 145, where the head of the 



144 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 9. 

Plate 9 shows three examples of inside finish — 
a door, a window, and sliding door — opening 
with trim. These like the other examples shown 
in Fig. 8 are easily understood. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 145 



where the walls are formed of square stones laid 



144 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 






PLATEa 



V^ 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 145 



"^ 




? 






s 



where the walls are formed of square stones laid 



144 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



145 



window or door is flat. There is a relieving 
arch thrown over the Hntel or cap to carry the 




Fig. 145. 

weight over to the jambs. The face of the 
window is all of dressed stone, while the walls 
are formed of irregular stones. 




Fig. 146. 

Another style of work is shown at Fig. 146, 
where the walls are formed of square stones laid 



146 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



/f<^K7\ 



l^yJk^l 





^^ A 




fmM 



Fig. 147. 



A ^ 



Up in irregular courses, and the relieving arch 
ends against a regularly prepared skewback. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 14-7 

At Fig. 147 are grouped some of the principal 
forms of arch shown in architecture. At A is 
the semicircular arch, describing half a circle. 
B is a form of elliptical arch, not unfrequently 
employed. It is not, in reality, elliptical at all, 
save in appearance, being a segmental arch, or 
one formed by the segment of a circle, which is 
struck from below the springings. The elliptical 
arch C is formed of several circles. The stilted 
arch D rises from points below its center. The 
Gothic architects employed various forms of the 
pointed arch at different epochs. E is what is 
usually termed an equilateral arch, so called 
because the two springing points and the crown 
of the arch form an equilateral or equal-sided 
triangle. F, the lancet arch, is more pointed 
than the preceding. It is struck from outside 
the springings, and has the outline of an isosceles 
or equal-legged triangle, of which the base is, of 
course, less than the sides. G, the "drop" arch, 
in contradistinction to the last example, is less 
pointed than the equilateral arch. It is struck 
from within the springings, and has a triangular 
outline, in which the base is longer than the 
sides. H, the "segmental Gothic arch", is 
composed of two segments of a circle, meeting 
obtusely. I, the "ogee" arch, was introduced at 



148 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

a late period of Gothic architecture, and is 
struck from four points. K, the "Tudor," arch 
prevailed during the close of the Gothic, and 
takes its name from the then ruling family of 
the English dynasty. It has a much flattened 
arch, low mouldings, and a profusion of panel- 
ings. I now come to arches of the form that are 
designated "foiled" arches, imitating the foils 
or leaflets of a leaf, which are generally divided 
into three varieties, viz., trefoils, cinquefoils, and 
polyfoils. L, M, N exhibit three forms of the 
"trefoil" or three-lobed arch, O is an example of 
the cinquefoil or five-lobed arch, and P, one of 
the "polyfoil" or many-lobed arch. The latter 
form is principally confined to Romanesque and 
Saracenic architecture, and is especially met 
with in Moorish and Saracenic buildings. The 
latter people also employed a peculiar arch, 
special to themselves, and generally styled the 
"horseshoe" arch, shown at Q. This is only 
found in Arabic or Moorish buildings. The so- 
called "flat" arch, R, is in reality not an arch at 
all, though the voussoirs are so arranged as to 
radiate from a center, and are laid in parallel 
courses. This arch is employed in doorways, 
windows, and fireplaces of buildings, and the 
intrados are generally supported by a bar of 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 149 

iron or beam of wood. In some very ancient 
examples the voussoirs are cut to a peculiar 
form, with the idea of securing great stability 
and strength, as shown at Fig. 148, which is 
copied from the fireplace of Coningsbergh 
Castle. 

I think the foregoing illustrations of arches 
and .the accompanying description are quite 
sufficient for my purpose, as the student can 




gather from them all he will immediately require 
to know, and after a thorough mastery of these 
examples he will have no difficulty in obtaining 
a higher knowledge from the thousand and one 
other sources that are available, should he so 
desire. 

SOME MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICE 

Suppose it is necessary to show a door and 
casings in abrick wall, with jamb linings, grounds 



150 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUvJHT 



and other finishings, we commence by first 
laying out the plan as shown at Fig. 149; we 
decide upon the height and width of door, also 




Fig. 149. 

Style of door, and finish, and work to scale 
accordingly. In this case I show an elevation, 
Fig. 151, and plan respectively with a four 

paneled door with 



jamb and soffit lining. 
Fig. 150 shows a por- 
tion of the plan en- 
larged. 

In this case it will 
be seen that the door 
is hung to the jamb 
lining itself; the lat- 
ter is attached to a 
backing ba dovetailed in between the framed 
grounds, and secured to wood bricks in the wall, 
the edges of which may be seen in section 
Fig. 152. 

in some cases the grounds are tongued into 




.iKCHITECTURA-L BRAWIiNG SELF TAUGHT 



151 



the jamb linings, but this is very seldom 
done. 




Fig. 151. Fig. 152. 

The jamb linings go right through the depth 
of the opening, and on one side of the wall have 
their edges rebated to receive the door; the 



152 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




edges on the other 
side of the wall 
being (in superior 
work) similarly re- 
bated to corre- 
spond. 

The soffit lining 
is secured to cra- 
dling or backing c, 
consisting of rough 
stuff attached to 
the under side of 
the lintels over the 
opening. 

Of course the 
doorway might be 
spanned by a 
rough brick arch, 
or by a concrete 
beam, without 
wood lintels, i n 
which case the 
framing would be 
secured to plugs 
let into the arch 
or beam. 

The enlarged 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



153 



plan In Fig. 150 differs slightly from Fig. 149, 
inasmuch as a smaller architrave is shown on 
the inside of the doorway. The paneling of the 
soffit lining is often shown in dotted lines upon 
the plan of the doorway. 

The whole ele- 
vation of one side 
of the door is 
shown at Fig. 151, 
and a section is 
shown at Fig. 152, 
with a portion of 
the jamb lining re- 
moved. This latter 
is a good scheme 
as it shows the 
workman exactly 
what is required of 
him. 

The illustration 
shown at Fig, 153 shows a vertical section oi 
a window and frame for a brick house. It is 
purposely cut short in order to show all the 
parts. It will be readily understood, as WL 
stands for wood lintel, b j for bottom joints, 
ib inside blinds, etc. Fig. 154 shows the same win- 
dow in elevation with shutters or blinds in sight. 




Fig- 154- 



154 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



The plan is shown at Fig. 155. This shows 
the shutters box splayed from the wall. The 
dotted lines show the shutters partly folded. 

In redrawing these examples the student 
should make them at least twice or three times 
the size shown herewith; this can readily be 




Fig. 155. 

done by taking the distances on a compass and 
transferring to the paper on which the drawing 
is to be made. If the drawing is to be twice the 
size of the original, then space off the distance 
of each feature twice, if to be three times the 
distance, then space off three times, and so on 
for other sizes. By following this advice, the 
student will become familiar with his instru- 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



155 



ments and with the various kinds of work. 
Indeed, this work is intended, besides being a 
teacher of primary drawing, to be a helper in 
obtaining some knowledge of architectural con- 
struction as well; for, 
it is supposed, it will 
fall chiefly into the 
hands of young stu- 
dents, apprentices, 
and fellows who have 
not had a fairly. good 
opportunity of ac- 
quiring a knowledge 
of either drawing or 
construction, but who 
are desirous of learn- 
ing what they can of 
both, during their 
spare moments. 

The plates, follow- 
ing the general illus- 
trations, will place before the student many 
things not as yet touched upon, but I have 
deemed it necessary to show a few miscellaneous 
items both for practice, and because of their con- 
structive value to the young builder. 

The door and casing shown in Fig. 156 is a 




156 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



good example for drawing; its proportions are 
nearly perfect, and the style is modern. This is 
an inside door as shown by the base. 

The sliding doors shown at Fig. 157 are very 
nearly built in the same style as the single door 




Fig. 157. 

shown in Fig. 156. These may be drawn to any 
special scale, or they may be transferred from 
the illustration. I show a section of the wall 
into which the sliding doors run at Fig. 158. 
This drawing shows the method of construction. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



157 



the end-wood of the studding being seen; also, 
the linings to protect the pocket. 

The illustration, as Fig. 159, shows a method 




Fig. 158. 

of adjusting the joint at the junction of the 
doors. The section shows clearly how the joint 
is hidden from view. 

A section and elevation 
of trim for a door is 
shown in Fig. 160. In 
this drawing the door, 
the step, the stud, the 

plaster and the trim are shown in place, and at 
the bottom, the plinth block and base are also 




Fig. 159. 



158 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



shown in section. This style of finish is called 
"block finish," because of the turned block being 

placed on the corner. 
Fig. i6i exhibits a 
corner of a balloon 
frame, showing the 
manner of placing 
the studs, corner 
boards and other 
finish. 

I show at Fig. 162 
a drawing of a cor- 
nice for a balloon 
frame house. The 




Fig. 160. Fig- 161. 

method of construction is made quite apparent 
and can easily be followed. The walls are 
boarded or "sheeted" on the outside, and then 
covered with siding or clapboards. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



159 



The next drawing, Fig. 163, shows a section of 
a corner for a brick wall. The gutter and com- 




plete finish for cornice are shown; also, an iron 
rod or anchor built into the wall, having a nut 
on the top which is intended to hold the plate 



160 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE lo. 

This plate shows a number of details half life 
size. A portion of elevation and section of 
trim head are given, also section of casing, picture 
frame mould, plinth-block, base and floor step. 
The face of plinth-block is also shown. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 161 



160 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 






c 







ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 161 



-f _ T 



160 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



161 



in its place on the wall. A section of a box 
window frame is shown at Fig. 164. The weights 
are seen in the box, the stud forming part of the 
box. This is designed for a balloon frame 
house, and it will be seen that the inside trim 




^^9 



'Fig. 163. 

forms one side of the box. This is an exceed- 
ingly cheap way to make a frame as but very 
little stuff is required in its construction. 

The section of window frame shown in Fig. 
165 exhibits the portion cut at the sill. This 



162 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




shows the construction of the frame at the 
bottom, including inside and outside finish. 

It will be in order 
now to follow the 
plates I have pre- 
pared, in which a 
large number of 
constructive de- 
tails are presented. 
I would advise that 
the student copy 
each item as pre- 
sented, making 
each one twice the size as shown on the plates; 
this will make instruc- 
tive practice and will 
soon fit the young 
draftsman for work of 
a higher and more elab- 
orate kind. 

The foregoing illus- 
trations have been 
especially prepared and 
drawn, with a view of 
leading the student by 
easy steps to a fair knowledge of the use of his 
instruments and the laying out of work on paper. 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



163 



Each item, too, has a constructive value^ as 
all are drawn from examples of actual work, 
and will, therefore, convey in some measure a 
true knowledge of construction, without which 
the work of the mechanical draftsman has but 
little value. 

Straight Line. 




Fig. 1 66. 



SOME ORNAMENTAL EXAMPLES 

We have now reached a stage where an 
attempt at ornamental geometrical drawing is 
permissible, and though it is not my intention 
to go deeply into this subject, a few examples 
along with brief descriptions will probably start 
some of my readers on a course of drawing 
extending far beyond the limits of this work. 

This kind of drawing — like most other 
drawing — is composed of straight lines, curved 
lines and mixed lines, as shown in Fig. i66, but 



164 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



such lines are regular, and are made by the aid 
of compasses, or other instruments, and this 




Fig. 168. 



fact distinguishes geometrical drawings from 
drawings wrought freehand. Suppose we desire 




Fig. 169. 



-I'd 

Fig. 170, 



9 / 



/ 




Fig. 171 



to show a square diagonally either for ornamental 
or practical purposes, we simply proceed as 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



165 



follows: Figs. 167 and 168 show the diagrams; 
join the lines a b, c d, Fig. 167, crossing at e, as 
shown in Fig. 168. Take half c d, Fig. 167, as c 
e, and set it off from m, Fig. 168, to e h, g f; 
join these, and parallel to them draw the 
internal squares and 
we have a figure 
more or less orna- 
mental. Again, sup- 
pose we desire a 
"lozenge" or dia- 
mond shape; this 
can be accomplished 
by a similar method 
as shown at Figs. 

169 and 170. Fig. 

170 shows the man- 
ner in which it is 
drawn; two lines c b, 
and e d, intersect at 
a; a c, a b, a e, a d, 
are each equal to half of a b, e f, Fig. 169; and 
a h, a m, a g, a f, Fig. 170, to half of h m, e d, 
Fig. 169. Let us put one of these examples to 
some further purpose; this is done in Fig. 171, 
which shows how this style of drawing may 
be used for filling in spaces. 




166 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

The example shown at Fig. 172 exhibits a 
method of drawing a design for a diamond- 

shaped pattern. 
.^ .f <J ^ e a ^^^ dotted lines 
\ \j/\ //i\ /ff\ / / I show the construc- 
/ tion, the distance 
/ between the dia- 

mond as e f g h, a 
bed, being equal 
p: j^ to the distance a f, 

a d e. The use of 
this is probably shown at Fig. 173, when a design 
for tile patterns is shown, the lines a b c d f are 
drawn to the angle shown and are parallel to 





Fig. 174. 

each other, the distances being shown at i h g. 

Another illustration of a square being set 

diagonally is shown at Fig. 174, which illustrates 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



167 



an open balustrade in Gothic style. The student 
should have no difficutly whatever in laying this 
diagram off, as it is a very simple matter. 

Figs. 175 and 176 show another design having 





Fig. 175. Fig. 176. 

six sides, which is often employed in decoration 
and in Gothic architecture. The manner of lay- 
ing it out is shown in Fig. 175, and completed 
figures are shown at Fig. 176. 




Fig. 177. 

The same figure in conjunction with the square 
is shown in finished work at Fig. 177. This 
represents a perforated balustrade or parapet; 
the curved lines are obtained by the compass, 
centers being easily found. 



168 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



A Still more complicated figure is shown at 
Fig. 178. This may be formed as follows: If 
the points 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 67, j'^ are joined, an 
octagon will be formed, and a square by joining 
9 10, 12 II. The octagon forms the basis of the 
combination, and is the first thing to be drawn, 




Fig. 178. 



which may be done as in Fig. 179, by forming a 
square, and thereafter an octagon the side of 
which is equal f e, f g. Draw lines, I i m, distant 
from each other equal to the distance between 
the rhomboids in Fig. 178. Parallel to the 
diagonal lines c b, a d, draw lines equal to i i, 
From e, one end of the octagon side, draw a line 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



169 



perpendicular to c d, joining the diagonal a d 
in h. From n, the end of another side of the 
octagon, draw parallel to c d, a line cutting the 
diagonal d a in o, parallel to e h, k t; draw lines 
p t, n s; two of the rhomboids will thus be 
formed; the remainder are drawn in a similar 
way. These being obtained, the squares, as in 
Fig. 178, are easily drawn. 

Some good examples in straight line work are 
shown in the following illustrations. Thus, we 






^ 



~(l 




Fig. 179. 



Fig. I So. 



see by making diagonal lines, as shown at Fig. 
180, the character of the example becomes 
ornamental, and this may be very much changed 
again by the introduction of small circles at the 
junction of the lines, as shown in one instance. 
This may again be elaborated by adding a line 
or dot to the circle as shown. 

Another example formed of squares and half 



17C 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



squares Is shown in Fig. i8i. This arrangement 
shows how "squares" may be placed so as to 
exhibit stars or other pointed ornaments. The 
shaded portion shows the star figure. 

Another example partaking of the same 
nature is shown at Fig. 182. This may be 





Fig. 18.. 



Fig. 182,, 



termed a basket pattern and is formed of inter- 
lacing straps. This pattern is an exceedingly 
good one for exercise, as it is composed of short 
lines and requires careful work to prevent over- 
lapping, which would spoil the work. In starting 
and ending a line, endeavor to have the line 
clear and distinct and of an even thickness as 
shown in the example. Lines must not be left 
short, but must join the cross lines as though 
they were under them. To draw a panel of 
interlacing strap work, as shown in example, 
without a flaw, is fairly good workmanship. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



171 



The example shown at Fig. 183 is a little more 
difficult to plot out than either of the previous 
ones, and the student will have to use his 



\B 



LCE 



^ 



_3 -L^ q"Jj" 



EJ 




Fig. 183. 



Fig. 




compasses and set squares and exercise consid- 
erable judgment. This example is a strapwork 
fret, and is a good one to follow for practice. 

Fig. 184 is a modifica- 
tion of the same orna- 
ment, a quarter circle be- 
ing used on all external 
angles instead of having 
the lines join with a right 
angle. In other words, the ornament is a com- 
bination of curves and straight lines. 

Copy these examples four or five times and 
you will be astonished at your own expertness. 

For practice I offer a few simple examples of 
frets; the first three figures, 185, 186, and 187, are 



Fig. 185. 



172 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



purely Greek examples, the first being the 
simplest form of running Greek fret. Its con- 
struction is very simple and easy, and may be 

reproduced with a 
T and set squares 
alone. Fig. 185 is 
constructed nearly 
in the same man- 
ner, there being 
two more angles 
The next fret is 
I appre- 




Fig. 186, 



in the latter than the former. 

a little more difficult to lay off, but 

hend the student will have no great difficulty in 

producing Fig. 186. 

Another style of fret, partaking somewhat of 
the arabesque, is 
shown at Fig. 
1S7. This can be 
repeated or con- 
tinued at will. 
After drawing 
one complete 
figure, its combi- 
nation will prove quite easy, though some little 
trouble and care will be experienced in forming 
the first complete figure as shown. 

At Fig. 188 a very different kind of fret is 




Fig. 187. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



173 



shown. This is composed of different figures, as 

e e forms a complete square, a number of which 

are set off at regular intervals, then arrange so 

that the points a 

5 

mi 



i 



a 



m 



fffl 



d will be covered, 
by the points b o c, 
and continue the 
fret to the required 
length. 

In working or- 
naments having 

curved lines in them, many examples can be pre- 
sented, but I do not intend to illustrate more than 

1 think will be necessary to enable the student 



Fig. i88. 



I c \\ 

(< >: 



Fig. 




to fairly understand the principles on which the 
ornamentation is based. The diagram shown in 
Fig. 189 will suggest to the draftsman something 
of the method in which combination of circles 



174 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

may be used for ornamental purposes. Here a 
diagonal square, c d f g, is first formed, one side 
of which is equal to the distance between the 
centers of the circles, as a, b, c, d. 
The radii of the circles described 
from the points d c g f is equal to 
half the side, as d m, f n, etc. 
i^ ^ Exemplifications of this figure are 





often found in Gothic perforated 
parapets and similar work. 

Another class of drawing is 
shown in Fig. 190, where parts of 
^H- circles and straight lines are used 

Fig. 190. iri order to form the ornament. 
In order to make this, proceed as 
follows: Draw the base line b first, then make 
a b at right angles to the first line. The respec- 
tive depths of the moulding must then be meas- 
ured off on this line, as d, h, m, o, and r, z, t, 
show the center line of the torus s, and e f, and 
u V show the centers of the ogees, and g n, the 
quarter round. Here in this example we have 
most of the mouldings in use in architecture — 
the ogee, or cyma recta, and the reverse ogee, or 
cyma reverse, the torus, the astragal, the quar- 
ter-round, and the fillet. 

Fig. 191 shows a design for a baluster that can 



AECHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



175 



readily be drawn by the student, as the centers 
for the various curves are given. The center 
of the lower curve is at a; Centers for the upper 
curves may be found by drawing a line c b; from 
a and b describe arcs cutting in d, with radius d 



'U 





,n"\ 



a 



r^ 


.;....^.. 










4-^....r\ 




x-e> 


/y 


1/ 
As 




1 1 


O- 


: 


o 



Fig. 191. 



Fig. 192. 



a describe an arc cutting the line c d in c; c in 
the center of the curve which is continued to the 
dotted line c b; a straight line is then continued 
to the neck of the baluster. The other curves 
and lines are readily obtained. 

The urn-shaped ornament shown in Fig. 192 is 
somewhat more complicated than the previous 



176 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE II. 

Plate II shows four doors of the style to be 
used In the cottage. These doors are drawn to 
a scale of one-half inch to the foot. The same 
character prevails in these four examples, the 
sliding doors being merely one of the second 
floor doors. The front doors are chamfered 
around the panels instead of being moulded, as 
the others are. The front and rear door maybe 
fitted with glass if so desired, in the second 
panel from top. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 177 

example. It is suited to many purposes, par- 



in severity and accuracy of form. 

Figs. 194 and 195 are studies of the wave-line. 



176 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Ce*»$ ^tct\«tt 



r ill 

I I 



PlatjeJI. 



StCo/Zo fi^R^ 0?^^ 5UOll^<5 DooR^ 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 177 

example. It is suited to many purposes, par- 










jl 




^^J^ . yr* 




1 1 








i li 




' vn— — :rtr-* 




1 




L-a, rv^ 



R^{\^ D??Rs. 



T^t('T' DftR^ 



in severity and accuracy of form. 

Figs. 194 and 195 are studies of the wave-line. 



176 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



177 




Fig. 193. 



example. It Is suited to many purposes, par- 
ticularly that of terminal. To form It we first 
draw a center line b h, then the base a b, c c, 
the fillet d, and the 
curved lines f f, g 
g; f f and e e are 
the centers of the 
circles; join g h; 
bisect it by the line 

i I, cutting g g in k k; from k, with the radius k 
h, describe arcs g h, and the line n n, the centers 
of the cap moulding are found. 

The last three examples are of a purely 
practical kind, and their determination suggests 
many other forms which will doubtless appeal 
to the student's imagination. 

The ornament shown at Fig. 193 is called a 
Gmlloche, or chain, and Is formed by concentric 

circles overlapping 
each other. This 
pattern Is easily 
drawn with com- 
passes, but Is here 
given as a freehand 
study. In order to give the student an exercise 
in severity and accuracy of form. 

Figs. 194 and 195 are studies of the wave-line. 




178 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




They are, in fact, the cyma recta repeated, the 

depth being lessened in Fig. 195. 

Fig. 196 is a study of the elementary lines of 

a running scroll, formed of the wave-line, with the 

addition of spirals. 
Care must be taken 
in drawing these spi- 
rals, so that they 
may proceed from 
the stem in a smooth 

and continuous manner. They should start as a 

continuation of the wave-line so gradually, that 

Fig. 196. 

if the stem beyond the spiral were removed the 
scroll would be perfect, and that if the scroll were 



Fig. 195. 




Fig. 197. 

taken away the wave-line would remain unin- 
jured. This should also be the case in Fig. 197, 
in which tendrils are added to the scrolls. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



179 



Fig. 198 is a further elaboration of the same 
design, the lines being doubled. 

Fig. 199 is another simple running pattern 
based on the wave-line. 

The example shown at Fig. 200 is an orna- 




Fig. 198. 

mental moulding adapted for wood-carving, and 
gives the pattern and half the repeat. 

Having drawn the upper and lower horizontal 
lines, draw A B, C D, E F, and G H; the 
distance between them being equal. Then it 




Fig. 199. 

will be seen that C D and G H are the center 
lines of the heart, and that A B and E F are the 
center lines of the tongue or leaf between the 
hearts. Now draw the curve J, and balance it 
by the curve I. 

It will of course be understood that although 



180 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



the Instructions and lettering refer to the com- 
plete figure, it Is Intended that the corresponding 
lines In the repeat are to be drawn at the same 
time; in fact, whatever length of the moulding 
is to be drawn, these divisions or compartments 
should be first set out, and the single curve 




Fig. 200. 

drawn in each before proceeding any further. 
On no account should one portion be completed 
before the others have been sketched, for as 
each set of curves Is drawn the drawing becomes 
more complex, and the difficulty of accurate 
balancing is Increased. 

When these curves have been completed, the 
Interior ones which depend upon, but are not 
parallel to them, are to follow. In drawing these 
the greatest care Is necessary so that the curves 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 181 

may run gracefully downwards, the space 
between the inner and outer curves becoming 
gradually narrower. 

The center part at C is now to be drawn, 
following the plan already laid down, viz.: to 
draw first the left and then the right side of the 
figure; and after this the leaves between the 
hearts are to be drawn in the same manner. 

The pattern shown at Fig. 201 is for a running, 
arranged so as to repeat; a will therefore join 
on to b, and thus the design may be continued. 

It will be seen that in order to equalize the 
spaces so as to carry out this arrangement, the 
whole is divided into squares, and the central 
flower is placed on the Intersection of the 
diagonals. 

In commencing this design, the general form 
Is to be sketched of each scroll rising out of the 
previous one. At this stage no notice should 
be taken of the husks or foliage c d, etc., but the 
scrolls should be sketched as if consisting of the 
main stem only, and the husks should then be 
drawn outside the original form. 

Great care must be exercised to Insure the 
smooth, spiral character of the curves. There 
must be no angular breaks, but the eye must be 
carried onward towards the center of each 



|82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 183 

scroll, and the husks must appear as additions, 
but not as excrescences. In order to test the 
correctness of the forms, turn the sketch upside 
down, place it vertically, or in any other direc- 
tion, and if the design has been correctly 
sketched, the scrolls should be equally perfect 
in whatever position they may be viewed. This 



EOiOOOOO 



Fig. 202. 



(K -JK y.K J) 



Fig. 203. 

should be repeatedly done during the progress 
of the work, so that any part which may be too 
full or too flat may be improved before the 
husks, flowers, foliage, or other details are 
added. 

The ornament shown in Fig. 202 is called the 
Echinus, the ^g^ and tongue, or ^^^ and dart 
moulding. It is much used by carvers for 
borders and similar work. 



184 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

The moulding shown at Fig. 203 is the Greek 
astragal, chaplet, or knuckle-bone ornament; 
this, also, is quite a favorite moulding with 
carpenters and cabinet-makers, because it can 




Fig. 204. 

be turned in a lathe and then split in two or 
quartered. 

Fig. 204 shows the Greek conventional lily 
form. It has a faint resemblance to the 
Egyptian lotus, but has a Grecian delicacy 
about it that is absent in Egyptian forms. 

The ornament shown in Fig. 205 is the Greek 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 185 

Anthemion. This is a very good example for 
practice. It can all be drawn by the aid of 
compasses. 




Fig. 205. 

The border shown at Fig. 206 is purely 
Egyptian, and is partly made up of the open 
lotus flower and the bud. This is a very 



186 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



common ornament for stenciling, incised work 
and low relief carving. 

A circular or rosette ornament is shown at 
Fig. 207 which is formed of a circle and four 




Fig. 206. 

lotus fiowers. This may be drawn free-hand or 
by the aid of compasses. A conventional form 
of the lotus, in a more finished and elaborate 

state, is shown in 
Fig. 208. This or- 
nament was much 
in use with the an- 
cient Egyptians, and 
was considered as 
being a sort of sa- 
cred emblem with 
them. Indeed, the 
lotus was known by 
Egyptians as "the 
sacred flower." 
The illustration shown at Fig. 209 is a Roman 
border, and is composed of curved and straight 




Fig. 207. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



187 



lines. This border is found on many of the old 
Roman buildings now extant and appears to 




Fig. 208. 

have been a favorite ornament with the old 
designers. 




Fig. 209. 

The ornament or rosette shown in Fig. 209^^ is 
a Roman one used largely during the period of 



188 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



the decay of art, 
about the second 
century of our era. 
It is quite elabo- 
rate, but is not by 
any means effec- 
tive. The orna- 
ment shown in Fig. 
2IO is also Roman 
but is the product 




Fig. 2IO. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 189 

of a better period and offers some advanced 
lines for the student's consideration. 




Fig. 211. 

The scroll border shown at Fig. 211 is of the 
Byzantine style of architecture, and is quite 




Fig. 212. 

effective in its way The rosette shown in Fig. 
212 is also of that style and offers good practice 
to the student. 

These latter examples are taken mostly from 



190 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



classic executed work, and while they only 
touch the fringe of classic ornament, they will, 
to some extent, give to the student an idea of 
the ornaments employed in the historical styles, 
and thus enable him to design his work on these 
lines with intelligence. 

GOTHIC ORNAMENT 

Gothic style is so much different to the styles 
that preceded it, that a separate chapter may 
well be devoted to it in order that the student 




Fig. 213. 

may have a fair opportunity of judging for him- 
self the peculiarities of the style. 

The first example presented is a Gothic 
border, Fig. 213, which, it will be seen, has a 
character of its own, that is far apart from other 
ornamentation. The main features of this style 
lie in the fact that its members all have a vertical 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



191 



tendency as may be noticed in its pointed 
arches, its sharp spires, its pinnacles, its but- 
tresses, its cluster columns, and its wonderful 
traceried windows and doors. Its chief elements 
are window tracery, trefoils, quatrefoils, cinque- 
foils, zigzags, gargoyles, fleur-de-lis and ball 
flowers. These, 
along with many 
other examples 
of ornamentation, 
and peculiar lay- 
out of plan and 
elevation, may be 
said to constitute 
the Gothic style. 

The illustration 
shown at Fig. 214 
represents the tre- 
foil ornament, as used in windows and other 
decoration, and is formed as follows: Draw 
the equilateral triangle as shown by the 
dotted lines a b c, then bisect it as at c f and a 
e, cutting the line c f, which gives the center for 
the surrounding circles; a b and c are the 
centers of the trefoil curves. 

The next illustration, Fig. 215, is the quatrefoil 
and is described from the corners, h m, f g, of a 




Fig. 214. 



192 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 12. 

This plate shows a portion of the stairs, com- 
plete and under construction. The newel post 
and balusters are plain and chamfered. The 
bottom step is rounded off at the newel. 



.TjoTiTT-vr'T-TTRAT. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 193 



^^C^Ld o^^C^LRf) 




ATjr-TiTT'TrnT'TTTJAT, DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 193 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



193 



square; a is the center of the 
found bv the intersection of 




Fig. 215. 

tagon, a b, d e f ; by dividing 
point g, and draw- 
ing a line from 
a to it, cutting the 
perpendicular e c 
in h, the center n 
is the point from 
which the sur- 
rounding circles 
are drawn. The 
other parts of this 
ornament are 
easily drawn. 



surrounding circles, 
the diagonals, a b, 
c d, of the square; 
the curves, s s s s, 
are drawn from 
the center a; while 
those meeting in 
1 1 1 1 are described 
from the centers, 
h m, f and g. 

The cinquefoil, 
Fig. 216, is de- 
scribed from the 
corners of the pen- 
e d equally on the 




Fig. 216. 



194 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Two more examples, and then I have finished 
in this style, but these are elaborate and will, 
doubtless, try the skill and patience of the stu- 
dent, but the results will well repay for the labor, 




and will open up new and unexplored fields for 
practice, for hundreds of designs may be formed 
by aid of the knowledge gained in understanding 
the examples herewith presented. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 195 

The diagram shown at Fig. 217 exhibits the 
skeleton work for the finished tracery shown at 
Fig. 218. The centers for all the curves of one 
third of the work are all shown by the heavy 
black dots. By a little study and patience the 




Fig. 218. 

student will soon be able to draw the completed 
work, Fig. 218. 

In Fig. 219 we have another skeleton for a 
still more elaborate piece of work. The centers 



196 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



are all shown by black dots, and portions of the 
curves are also given. The completed work 
shown at Fig. 220 has a very rich and ornate 
appearance. These two examples are quite 




Fig. 219. 

sufficient to give the student a good insight into 
Gothic tracery work, but it must be remembered 
that in Gothic work the designs of this character 
are innumerable. Portions of these designs are 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 197 

used in window and door heads, and in a 
hundred other places, always with effect. 

It will be noticed that in these two designs 
given, that the trefoil, or three circles, forms the 




Fig. 220. 

foundation of the whole of the work. All the 
other ornamentation seems to cluster around 
the three larger circles; this is the peculiarity 
of these two examples, but it must be borne in 



198 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



mind that the trefoil is not the only basis around 
which the old Gothic designers built their 
tracery; but these are sufficient for our purposes. 



SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF ORNAMENTATION 

The studious draftsman will soon discover 
many new worlds to conquer if he pays much 

. attention to his 

' work, and he will 
' ' find that, for or- 
namental work, 
the power of his 
compasses is al- 
most without 




limit. 



Fig. 221. 

I offer a few simple examples herewith, 




Fig. 222. 

and will follow them up with others of a more 
complicated nature. 

The illustrations shown at Figs. 221 and 222 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



199 



show the finished work, and working diagrams. 
The method of drawing these curves and orna- 
ments is quite apparent, the centers are all 
given, and the dotted lines show the direction 
of the curves. A very little practice on these 




Fig. 223. 

examples will enable the draftsman to describe 
them in quick time, and will give him an insight 
into the methods employed in designing orna- 
ments of this kind. 

Another very simple design, and one that 
requires but little description on the manner 



200 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



of making it, is self-evident, and is shown at Fig. 
^23. This is a very effective ornament, and at 
cne time was much in vogue. 

The ornament shown at Fig. 224 is drawn 

right and left, one-half being complete, and the 

other half exhibiting the various centers from 

fM 




Fig. 224. 

which the curves of the pattern are drawn. The 
method of forming scrolls has been described in 
a previous chapter, so that it is unnecessary to 
repeat at this stage. The design is simple, the 
centers being all given and the dotted lines 
show the radii of the curves. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



201 



The design shown at Fig. 225 is taken from 
an old example of panel work and has rather a 
quaint look. The draftsman will have no great 
difficulty in lining out this design. 

The ornament shown at Fig. 226 is intended 
for a double barge-board, having a belt running 

along the center, di- 
viding the upper from 
the lower portion. 
This design is some- 
what complicated, 
and I therefore give 
herewith a full de- 
scription of the meth- 
od of describing it. 
To properly divide 
the diameter a, b, of 
the circle a b, c, d, 
into six equal parts, through the third of these, 
drawing the line c, d, e, f, g, at right 
angles to a, b. From 3, with distance equal to 
one of the parts on a, b, set off the line a, c, to 
the points 6 and 7, and through the points, 2, 4, 
6, and 7, draw lines, forming a square. Then 
from the point 3 as a center, with 35 or 31 as 
radius, describe the circle hi, isd. Then with 
half the distance 5b, nia, and upon the lines 6 




Fig. 225. 



202 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




Fig. 226. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



203 



and 7, produced to right and left, describe from 
the centers j, k, 89, the arcs of circles which will 
join the parts of circle, i5, hi, as 5I, Im, hn, 50, 
with the sides 2 and 4 of the square. The small 
circles as j, k, 89, give the standard for the 




Fig. 227. 

various centers and center lines, the moulded 
part d, being drawn to depth as shown. Set off 
from the d the distance of the diameter of small 
circles as k, from the point d, nine and a half 
times to the point f, which terminates the design. 
The line p, q is drawn at right angles to g f, 
through the first part, r, s, through the third and 
the line t, u, through a point midway between 



204 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

the sixth and seventh points. All the circles 
and arcs of circles are either equal to parts or 
multiples of the standard circle as k, or f, any 
one of the six divisions on the line a, b. 

The design shown at Fig. 227 is also a pattern 
for a verge board, and is a very good example 
of the kind. The centers for the circles are all 
shown in the working diagram, the cutting lines 
all being represented by the dotted lines. I 
purposely leave this without a further descrip- 
tion so that the draftsman may exercise his own 
skill in working it out, not a very difficult matter 
when the reference letters are given. 

The drawing shown at Fig. 228 is a design for 
a balcony panel, showing frame and drop mould- 
ings. Suppose a, b, to be the total height; then 
divide it into seven equal parts and through the 
fourth of the points draw a line c, d at right 
angles to a, b. Make the facia at top equal to 
the distance between the sixth and seventh 
points. From the line d, set off to e, and f, and 
make f, g; e, h, each equal to two-thirds of one 
of the parts on a, b, as 7, 8. Through the point 
2, draw a line parallel to c, d, through e, f; g, 
h, draw lines parallel to a, b, Make b, j, equal 
to e, f, and through j, draw a line parallel to c, 
d, joining f, e. Bisect 2, j, in the point k, and 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



205 



through k, draw m, k, 1, parallel to c, d. With 
one-fourth of the distance of g, h, or e, f, set off 




Fig. 228. 

from the points j, k, o, and m, on each side of 
the center lines, as to o, and n, from 2, and i. 



206 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

From these points as centers, as o, and n, with 
radii equal to o, i, describe arcs cutting as at p, 
and from p, describe an arc joining o, n. Do the 
same at all the other points, and describe the 
double arcs. Divide one of the parts into which 
a, b, is divided, as the lowest part b, I, into four 
equal parts, as in the points of r, and s. With 
two of these as radius, from the point k, in 
center describe the circle k, t, u, and put in the 
ornament with the arcs as shown. Through the 
points I, s, 2, and q, as the line a, b, draw lines 
with distance q b set off from q to v, and from 
V draw a line parallel to a b, parallel to m, k, 1. 
With r, s, as radius, from v, as center describe 
the arc v, x. With half the distance q, v, set off 
from X, to y, and through y, draw a line parallel 
to V, w, as y, z; the point z, is the center of the 
arc y, a. The arc from a, is described with 
radius x, y, and through the center a line to b, is 
drawn parallel to w, v. The arc c, is described 
from the point d. The dotted lines and radii 
show how the other parts are put in. The 
ornaments at f, are put in the lines drawn from 
the center k, to the corner points, as at e. 

These examples make splendid practice for 
the young student, and if repeated two or three 
times, they will become so impressed on the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 207 

mind that they may be produced at will without 
copy, and enable one to form designs, with the 
aid of rule and compass, to suit almost any 
situation. All these examples are formed in 
exact architectural proportions, a matter that is 
often lost sight of by the draftsman, who is 
sometimes astonished at his own uncouth 
creations, which become as offensive to the 
trained eye as vulgar language does to the 
cultivated ear. In the formation of ornaments, 
like everything else in this world, there is an 
"eternal fitness," a fact which should never be 
lost sight of. 

The design shown at Fig. 229 is a very useful 
one and will answer very nicely for a drop or an 
eaves board. Suppose a, b, to be the height of 
the lower part of the design which is divided 
into thirteen equal parts. Then, through the 
second, sixth, seventh, and eleventh of these, 
draw lines at right angles to a b. From point I, 
with half the distance of the space between 
points I and 2, as radius, describe the circle d. 
From the point 2, draw lines at an angle of 45° 
to the line c f, cutting the semicircle; these 
points, as g and h, give the centers of the semi- 
circles. From one center of the circle described 
between the points 3 and 4 draw lines at right 



208 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 13. 

Plate 13 shows a mantel in elevation and 
section, also a plan of the shelf, with construc- 
tion lines. This is drawn to a scale of ^ of an 
inch to the foot. 



AKCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 209 



F 



208 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




I 



> i 



PLftTEia 



► < 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 209 



W ' 



% 



rgryi f 






Z253Z223r 



R^^^ 



m ^P, 



208 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 209 




Fig. 229. 



810 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

angles to the line e, f, to i and j. These are the 
centers of the parts of circles thus shown. 
Finishing the circle at the point k draw the line 
k, 1, parallel to a b; on this line the center m, of 
the arcs n and o, is found. 6 and p are the 
centers of the arcs q and r. The remaining 
portions of the design may readily be put in 
from the lines, curves and centers given. 

The example shown at Fig. 230 illustrates an 
elaborate design suited for a balustrade and 
many other purposes. Let a b be the height; 
divide this into two equal parts in the point c, 
through c, draw a line at right angles to a b, as 
d c d. Draw the distance a b, into eighteen, or 
a c, into nine equal parts. With one of. these, 
from the center c, describe the circle e, f, g, 
h, and from the point where this cuts the line, 
a b; d, d, describe circles, the radius of which 
is one-fourth of one of the parts, or a, c. Then 
with the distance as h, g, from these points as 
centers, describe arcs cutting in the point i; 
from i, as a center with e, the same radius still 
kept on the compasses, describe an arc j. Do 
the same from the other points, as g, f; f, e; e, 
h, and thus find the centers from which the arcs 
corresponding to j, are described. From the 
points k, 1, where the outside of the small circles 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 21 I 




Fig. aso. 



212 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

e and g, cut the Une d, d, as centers with i, j, or 
c, g, as radius, describe arcs as t, r, s, or u, q, v, 
stopping at lines n, m; o, p, drawn through the 
points k, and 1, parallel to a, h. Next, from i, 
set off to the point p, and do the same at the 
other and corresponding points, thus finding the 
four centers m, n, o, and p. From these, with 
e, c, d, or i, j, as radius, describe arcs which are 
joined by straight lines with the semicircles w, 
and X, at the upper and lower ends of the design. 
To find the centers of these semicircles, divide 
the distance between the points I, and 2, on the 
line a b, into four equal parts, and at the points 
draw a line z, z; from the point y set off in the 
line z z, a distance equal to b g, to the points a 
and b. From these points a and b with a radius 
equal to y, I, or y, 2, describe semicircles, as w, 
c; X, c. Join the points w, and x, by straight 
lines e, e, with the arcs described from the points 
p, and n. From a point in the center between 
b, and c, and a, and c, describe a small arc, and 
join this with another arc with the points, as d, 
d; the center of the arcs being at c, c. The 
lower arc, d, f, is described from the center g, 
which is on a line drawn through a point the 
third in the distance b, I, on the line b a. To 
describe the part marked A, cut out the part B, 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



213 



B. From the point m, o, and n, and p, describe 
small circles, the radius being one-fourth part 
of one of the parts on a b. With a radius equal 
to half of one of the parts as I 2, on the line a b, 
describe circles from the point f, f ; k, k, having a 




Fig 23 



space between them equal to the space at c, as 
1, 1, and with a radius equal to the diameter oi 
these circles, describe from the points 1, 1, the 
arcs m, n; m. n. From n, n, which are equidistant 
from the center line, a space equal to the radius 
of the small circles n, p; describe with radius of 
these small circles the arcs meeting in the point 



214 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

o. With w, V, or s, t, as radius, set off on the line 
h, h; from the points 1, 1, to h, h, and from h, h, 
describe the arcs 1, p, 1, p, the centers of the 
arcs p, p, are q. q. 

These examples are quite sufficient for our 
purpose so far as woodwork and decoration are 
concerned, but it may not be amiss to supple- 
ment them with a few on the same line, that will 
answer for iron, for wood, or for designs in 
stencilling or other decorative work. To this 
end, I present an ornament in Fig. 231, that is 
suitable for a central ornament, and one that 
may be employed for many purposes. Carvers 
frequently make use of this as a skeleton figure 
for carved panel work as it may be elaborated 
to almost any extent. The manner of drawing 
it is as follows: Let, a a, be the center line, and 
a, b, the distance from upper rail to center of 
lower part of design; through b, draw the line c, 
d, at right angles to a, b; c, d, in the length of the 
lower part of the design. Divide c, b, b, d, into 
two equal parts in the points e, and f, with 
radius e, c, describe an arc cutting in the point i; 
from i, with i, a, describe the arc b, a, h. From 
the point b, set off the distance e, f, to the point 
j; and through j, draw a line k, k, parallel to c, 
d. From j, with the distance b, f, set off to the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



215 



points 1, and m, and these will be the centers of 
arcs forming the upper part of the design. The 
lines and centers for the spiral terminations of 




Fig. 232. 

the leading curves thus described as shown in 
the drawing. 

The skeleton shown in the illustration, Fig. 
232, exhibits an ornament drawn altogether with 
the compass. The centers are all shown and 
lettered for reference; r being the general 



216 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




center, while a, 
j, d, i, m and c 
show the divis- 
ions and radia- 
ting lines of one- 
half of the fig- 
\ ure. As the cen- 
7^ ters may all be 
framed at the 
intersections of 
the dotted lines, 
further explan- 
ations are un- 
^ necessary. 

I close this 
department by 
illustrating a n 
ornament in 
which the ellipse 
predominates, 
Fig. 233, which 
exhibits a run- 
ning scroll suit- 
ed to many pur- 
poses. On the 
continent of Eu- 
rope scrolls of 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 217 

this kind are often used as window screens, 
being attached to the frame and covered 
with gauze, or woven wire, to prevent insects 
getting in the house when the window is open. 
This shows only half the design. The height 
of this section, a, b, is divided into nine 
equal parts, the width of the framework is 
equal to one of these parts. From c, at right 
angles to c, d, draw the line c, f, and with the 
distance a, b, from the point c, set off to the 
points e and f, and through these points draw 
lines at right angles to c, f; f, g, is the center 
line of the design. From the point f, with four 
of the parts on the line a, b, set off to the point 
h, and through h, draw at right angles to f, g, 
the line i, i. From the point h, set off to i, i, five 
of the parts in a, b, making i, i, equal to ten of 
these parts; divide i, i, into five equal parts; the 
first j, and fourth k, are the foci of the elliptical 
ornament, which draw as shown. Through the 
point 4 on a, b, draw a line 41, and make the 
distance m, 1, equal to h, i; put in the elliptical 
part as shown, and finish as in the diagram, in 
which all the centers and center lines are given. 
Rules for describing the ellipse were given in 
previous pages, that should the student 
experience any difficulty in describing the 



218 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



elliptical curves, he may refer to those pages for 
assistance. 

SOMETHING ON ORDERS OF .ARCHITECTURE 

It is not my intention to eiiter deeply into a 
description of the orders of Architecture or to 
give the student a history of their rise and 
growth, or analyze their peculiarities; it is 




enough for our purpose, to be able to draw 
them, and to give to each order its own pro- 
portion and arrangement. Before we can do 
this, however, it will be necessary for us to be 
able to lay off a section of a column, showing 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



219 



the position of flutes and fillets in plan and 
elevation. This is brought out nicely in Fig. 
234, where the dotted lines show the width of 
flutes and fillets as they will appear on the 
elevation. Suppose a b Fig, 234 to be the 
diameter of the column, then bisect it in c; and 




draw c d. Make lines corresponding to these, 
and from the point c, with c b, describe the 
semicircle a d b, representing half the column. 
Bisect the quadrant a d, in the point e, and 
divide the arcs a e, e d, by points g, f, h, m. 
Mark the position of these by radial lines from 
c, as in the example. Divide the part a g into 
eight equal parts; and with three of these as 
radius, from the points in the quadrant, as g, f, 



220 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



etc., describe semicircles. Six parts will thus be 
given to each flute, and two to each fillet; and 
the column will have twenty-four flutes. 

To describe the flutes in a Doric column with- 
out the fillets, proceed as follows: Lay out the 
portion of column as in the previous example, 
by dividing the quadrant bee. Fig. 235, into six 




Fig. 236. 

equal parts, as e, m, n, etc., giving to the entire 
column twenty-four flutes as before. Draw 
radial lines from b. Divide a f into four equal 
parts, and lay one of these on a b produced to e; 
from b, with b e, describe a semicircle as e m n, 
cutting the radial lines. Bisect a f in o, and 
with f o as radius, from the points — where the 
dotted semicircle intersects the radial lines — as 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



221 



centers, describe the arcs as in the example. 
Another method is shown in Fig. 236. which is 
formed as follows: Make the semicircle a d e 
and divide the quadrant bad into five equal 
parts, so as to give twenty flutes to the column. 
Produce a b to f; bisect a e in h, and from e lay 
off e h to m; join h m, and with distance h e lay 




o 

Fig. 237. 

off on the radial line b e to n. From b, with b 
n, describe the dotted semicircle, f n o. The 
centers f the flutes are placed where the radial 
lines intersect this semicircle. From n, with n 
m, describe the lines as shown, and finish the 
section. 

A section of a column having flat flutes and 
fillet is shown at 237. To describe this draw the 
semicircle a d c, and divide the quadrant bad 
into six equal parts, divide a e into five equal 



222 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



parts. With two of these from the radial line 
lay off on each side, as f h. With one part lay 
off from c to m, and from m, with b m, describe 
a semicircle c d a; complete the diagram as 
shown. This will give the depth of the flutes, 



)rzS-^ 


^^^^ 


-it 


^a 


! i 


^^^B 



h 

Fig. 238. 

one; the width four, and the width of the fillets, 
one. 

In Fig. 238 we give a method of describing 
the cabled moulding with fillets between. Divide 
the semicircle a c d in the same proportion as in 
Fig. 234, giving an equal number as in that 
example. From b, with b e on the compass, 
describe the semicircle c f f. From the points 
where the radial lines intersect this, as centers, 
with a e, describe the curves as in the example. 

I will now endeavor to explain what are known 
as "The orders of Architecture," showing their 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 22?. 

various members, their proportion, and the 
manner of arrangement. 

"Order, in architecture," says an authority, 
"is a system or assemblage of parts subject to 
certain uniform established proportions, regu- 
lated by the office each part has to perform. 
An order may be said to be the genus, whereof 
the species are Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian 
and Composite; and consists of two essential 
parts; a column and an entablature." 

These again are subdivided, the first into 
three parts, namely: the base, the shaft and the 
capital; the second also into three parts, namely: 
the architrave or chief beam, C Fig. 239, which 
stands immediately on the column; the frieze B, 
which lies on the architrave, and the cornice, A, 
which is the crowning or uppermost member of 
the order. In the subdivisions certain horizontal 
members are used, which from the curved form 
of their edges are called mouldings, the con- 
struction of which depends on a certain knowl- 
edge of geometry. This application may be 
seen in the illustration; thus a is the ogee, b, the 
cornice, c the ovolo, d the cavetto, which with 
fillets compose the cornice, f f the facia. 

The capital of the column consists of the 
upper members or abacus, g, the ovolo moulding 



2£4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 14. 

This plate shows an elevation for a cheap book- 
case suited for the cottage under consideration. 
The end elevation is also shown with the face of 
drawers laid off. The scheme for a box stall 
shown in the drawing is somewhat out of the 
usual course, but may be found very convenient 
in stable construction. 



225 



diameter of the column must be determined, and 



2£4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



Plate 






ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



225 



y^ 






diameter of the column must be determined, and 



2£4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 225 

c, the astragal i i, and the neck h. The base 
consists of the torus k, and the pHnth 1. The 
character of an order is displayed, not only in its 
columns but in its general forms and details, 
whereof the column is, as it were, the regulator; 
the expression being of strength, grace, elegance, 
lightness, or richness. Though a building be 
without columns it is nevertheless said to be of 
an order, if its details be regulated according to 
the method prescribed for such order. 

In all the orders a similar unit of reference is 
adopted for the construction of their various 
parts. Thus, the lower diameter of the column 
is taken as the proportional measure of all the 
other parts and members, for which it is subdi- 
vided into sixty parts, called minutes, or into 
two modules of thirty minutes each. Being pro- 
portional measures, modules and minutes are 
not fixed ones like feet and inches, but are vari- 
able as to the actual dimensions which they 
express — larger or smaller according to the 
actual size of the diameter of the column. For 
instance, if the diameter be just five feet, a 
minute being one-sixtieth, will be exactly one 
inch. Therefore, before commencing to draw 
an elevation of any one of the orders, the 
diameter of the column must be determined, and 



226 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




Fig. 239. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2S7 

from that form a scale of equal parts, by sixty 
divisions, then lay off the widths and heights of 
the different members according to the propor- 
tions of the required order as marked on the 
body or on the sides of the illustrations. 

Fig. 239 presents an illustration of the Tuscan 
order, considered by architects as a spurious or 
plain sort of Doric, and hardly entitled to remark 
as a distinct order. E in the frieze correspond- 
ing to the triglyph, illustrates still further the 
connection of the two orders; but by many 
architects this member is not introduced. No. i 
is an elevation of capital and entablature, No. 2 
of the base, and No. 3 of a detached capital. 
Our example is constructed according to the 
rules given by Vincent Scamozzi. 

Examples of two capitals are given, differing 
merely in the number of mouldings in the abacus. 

In fact, this introduction of simple mouldings 
is about the only variety allowable in the order. 
Ornament is not admitted, nor are the pillars 
ever fluted. 

A slightly convex curvature, or entasis, is 
given in execution to the outline of the shaft of 
a column, by classic architects, just sufficient to 
counteract and correct its appearance, or fancied 
appearance, of curvature in a contrary direction 



228 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




Fig. 240 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 229 

(L e., concavely), which might else take place, 
and cause the middle of the shaft to appear 
thinner than it really is. 

No. 4 represents the form of a half column 
from the Pantheon at Rome. In No. 5 another 
example of entasis, the lower third of the shaft 
is uniformly cylindrical; the two upper thirds 
are divided into seven equal parts. On the 
semicircle shown in the figure, is a chord cut off 
parallel to the diameter, the length of which is 
fifty-two parts only one-half being shown. 
Divide the part a b of the circumference 
between the diameter and chord into seven 
equal parts, and draw parallel lines from each 
division to those of the upper part of the 
column, which will give the diameter of the 
shaft at each division; by increasing the number 
of the divisions, more diameters for different 
parts of the shaft may be found. 

Fig. 240 exhibits an example of the Doric 
order, from the temple of Minerva in the island 
of Egina. The dimensions are given in parts of 
the diameter, as in the preceding example, and 
the same capital letters denote corresponding 
parts. No. i is an elevation of the capital and 
the entablature. No. 2 of the base, and a part 
of the Podium. No. 3 shows the forms of the 



230 • ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

flutes at the top of the shaft, and No. 4 at the 
base. No. 5 the outline of the capital on an 
enlarged scale. 

The Doric order may be said to be the 
original of the Greek orders, of which there are 
properly but three; the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- 
thian, which differ in the proportion of their parts 
and in some of their ornaments and mouldings. 
Of the Doric, the mutules a a, the triglyphs b b, 
the guttae or drops d d of the entablature, the 
echinus f and the annulets g g of the capital, 
may be considered characteristic. With regard 
to the arrangement of triglyphs, one is placed 
over every column and one or more inter- 
mediately over every inter-column — a span 
between two columns — at such a distance from 
each other that the metopes c, or spaces between 
the triglyphs, are square. 

In the best Greek examples of the Doric order 
there is only a single triglyph over each inter- 
column. One peculiarity of the Grecian Doric 
frieze is, that the end triglyphs, instead of being 
like the others in the same axis or central line 
as the column beneath, are placed quite up to 
the edge or outer angle of the frieze. The 
mutules arp thin plates or shallow blocks 
attacned to the under side of soffit of the 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 231 

corona, over each triglyph and each metope, 
with the former of which they correspond in 
breadth, and their soffits, or under surfaces, are 
wrought into three rows of guttae or drops, 
conical or otherwise, shaped, each row consisting 
of six guttae, or the same number as those 
beneath each triglyph. Though a few excep- 
tions to the contrary exist, the shaft of the Doric 
column was generally what is technically called 
fluted. The number of channels or flutes is 
either sixteen or twenty, afterwards increased in 
the other circles to twenty-four, for they are 
invariably of an even number, capable of bein^ 
divided by four, so that there shall always be a 
center flute on each side of the column. 

Fig. 241 presents an example of the Ionic 
order, taken from the temple of Minerva Nolias 
at Athens. No. i is an elevation of capital ana 
entablature, No. 2 the base. No. 3 is a half of 
the plan of the column at the base and the top; 
No. 4 an elevation of the side of the capital. 
In the proportions of its shaft, which are more 
slender, and the addition of a base, it differs 
from the Doric; but the capital is the indicial 
mark of the order by which it is immediately 
recognized. It is far more complex and irregular 
than the other orders of capitals; instead of 



232 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 15. 

Plate 15 exhibits an odd piece of furniture, 
termed a "kitchen desk." Twelve students can 
sit around this desk and work with ease. The 
elevations show the manner of finish, with 
drawers on top of case under the desk top, and 
doors below, that cover shelves, intended for 
books or other similar materials. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 233 



232 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLflTE.15. 



c 
c 




—1 








t 











ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2SS 



^^ 


- - 




















Desi^ 

4 


• 





ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2SS 

showing four equal sides, it exhibits two fronts, 
with spirals or volutes parallel to the architrave 
and narrowed, baluster sides (No. 4), as they are 
termed, beneath the architrave. 

When a colonnade was continued in front and 
along the flanks of the building, this form of 
capital occasioned an offensive irregularity; for, 
while all the other columns on the flanks 
showed the volutes, the end one showed the 
baluster side. It was necessary that the end 
column should, therefore, have two adjoining 
volute faces, which was effected by placing the 
volute at the angle diagonally, so as to attain 
their two voluted surfaces placed immediately 
back to back. This same diagonal disposition 
of the volutes is employed for all capitals alike, 
in Roman and Italian examples of this order. 

The capital admits of great diversity of 
character- and decoration — it sometimes is with- 
out necking, sometimes with; which may either 
be plain or decorated, to suit the entire design. 
The capital may also be modified in its pro- 
portionSj first as regards its general proportion 
to the column; secondly, as regards the size of 
the volutes compared with the width of the face. 
In the best Greek examples the volutes are 
much bolder than in the Roman. The spirals 



234 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



'Ta 



"^j^^/^^MMMmmMM^mMmMm'iwmM'^S^. 



"W-'-Xk'^X 



Fig 1. 




Fig. 241. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 235 

also of the volutes may be either single or 
maniold, and the eye or center of the spiral 
may be made larger or smaller, flat or convex, 
or curved as a rosette. 

Fig. 242 represents an example of the Corin- 
thian order, from the Arch of Hadrian, at 
Athens. This order is distinguished from the 
Ionic, more by its deep and foliated capital than 
by its porportions — the columns of both have 
bases differing but little from each other, and 
their shafts are fluted in the same manner. 

Although the order itself is the most delicate 
and lightest of the three, the capital is the 
largest, being considerably more than a diameter 
in height, varying in different examples from 
one to one and a half diameter; upon the 
average about a diameter and a quarter. 

The capital has two rows of leaves, eight in 
each row, so disposed that of the taller ones, 
composing the upper row, one comes in the 
middle, beneath each face of the abacus, and the 
lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, 
coming between the stems of the latter; so that 
in the first or lower tier of leaves there is in the 
middle of each face a space between two leaves 
occupied by the stem of the central face, above 
them. Over these two rows is a third series of 



236 - ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 






fro 



J.. 



pd. .^^ 




Corinthian Order. 








;" ' ", 



Fig. 242. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 237 

eight leaves, turned so as to support the small 
volutes which, in turn, support the angles of the 
abacus. Besides these outer volutes, which are 
invariably turned diagonally, as in the four-faced 
Ionic capital, there are two smaller ones, termed 
caulicoli, which meet each other beneath a 
flower on the face of the abacus. The abacus 
itself is not, properly speaking, a square, 
although it may be said to be so in its general 
form. But instead of being straight, the sides 
of the abacus are concave in plan, being curved 
outwards so as to produce a sharp point at each 
corner, which is usually cut off. 

The proper Corinthian base differs from that 
of the usual Ionic or Attic, in having two smaller 
scotiae, separated by two astragals; however, 
both kinds are employed indiscriminately. The 
shaft is fluted, in general, similarly to that of the 
Ionic column, but sometimes the flutes are 
cabled, as it is called; that is, the channels are 
hollowed out for only about two-thirds of the 
upper part of the shaft and the remainder cut 
so that each channel has the appearance of 
being partly filled up by a round staff or a piece 
of rope, hence the term cabling. 

The cornice is very much higher than in the 
other orders, which makes more projection also. 



238 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

From this greatly increased depth of cornice, 
it consists of a great number of mouldings 
beneath the corona, for that and the cymatium 
over it invariably retain their places as crowning 
members of the whole series of mouldings. In 
the illustration square blocks or dentels are 
introduced, but often to the dentels is added a 
row of modillions immediately beneath and sup- 
porting the corona. These modillions are 
ornamental blocks, curved in their under surface 
somewhat after the manner of the letter S laid 
on its edge, and between them and the dentels, 
also below the latter, are other mouldings, 
sometimes cut, at others left plain. Sometimes 
a plain, uncut dentel band is substituted for 
dentels; sometimes, in simpler cornices, that is 
omitted altogether and plainer blocks are 
employed instead of modillions; or else both 
dentels and modillions are omitted. The dentel 
is not peculiar to this order, but is considered as 
more properly belonging to the Ionic. 

The composite order is very much akin to the 
Corinthian, and is sometimes called the Roman 
Corinthian. It is frequently formed with square 
plinths or pedestals beneath the column. The 
base is nearly like those of the Doric and Ionic. 
The shaft is channeled with twenty-four flutings 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



^?^ 



separated by f i 1 1 e t s. 
The capital consists of 
two rows of acanthus 
leaves, eight in each 
row; the upper row be- 
ing placed over the 
meeting points of those 
in the lower row. Four 
spiral volutes in each 
face spring from two 
bunches of acanthus 
leaves; and two of them 
are so connected at the 
corners as to support 
the abacus of the cap- 
ital. (See Fig. 243.) 
Each face of the aba- 
cus, besides being 
moulded into an ovolo 
form, is a slight differ- 
ence between the Cor- 
inthian and Composite. 
The Corinthian archi- 
trave is divided into 
three facias, the Composite into two; the 
being in both cases separated from anoth 
small enriched mouldings. 




facias 
er by 



240 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE i6. 

Plate i6 shows sections and plans of windows, 
for wood and for brick buildings, with weights 
where the mullion is narrow and will not admit 
of two weights passing each other. One section 
shows the manner of constructing the angle of 
a bay window where boxes and weights are 
required. This is a very useful plate for the 
young draftsman. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 241 

The frieze is enriched nearly all over with 
sculptures or other ornaments. The cornice, 



sometimes a little puzzling to decide on what 
style of letter to employ, I thought I would 
give a few examples, so that the draftsman may 



240 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



.te^^ 




PLftTEilo. 



PLAN OFWf^NDOWS FOR W OOD BU I LDi Ni 




misss 



f\HD FOi\ BF(ICI\ 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



241 



The frieze is enriched nearly all over with 
sculptures or other ornaments. The cornice, 



^^a 



if 

Mm 



rsssw>^\iiii' 



M" 




IWSBS 



Kssmssar 



PLAN ?F MULLI9NS 

(^^TH?D?F HANGING 

MULLI9N 




sometimes a little puzzling to decide on what 
style of letter to employ, I thought I would 
give a few examples, so that the draftsman may 



240 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 241 

The frieze is enriched nearly all over with 
sculptures or other ornaments. The cornice, 
besides a number of small enriched mouldings 
above and below the corona, has a row of those 
square blocks which obtain the name of dentils. 
The Composite has mutules on the soffit, or 
underside of the corona, like the Doric; but the 
Corinthian has peculiar ornaments, called 
modillions. Between every two modillions, 
along the under side of the corona, is an enriched 
panel. 

If the student has followed the foregoing 
closely, he will, by this time, not only be a fair 
draftsman, but he will have obtained a knowl- 
edge of general architecture and construction 
that will make of him a valuable and efficient 
mechanic, and one whose services will be sought 
after and paid for at a good rate. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

A good draftsman is always supposed to be a 
good letterer, and as every drawing must have 
a brief description of some sort, and as it is 
sometimes a little puzzling to decide on what 
style of letter to employ, I thought I would 
give a few examples, so that the draftsman may 




242 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

have something to aid him in deciding. Orna- 
mental letters had better be avoided until such 
time as the draftsman feels he can make them 
with ease and celerity, and plain lettering had 
best be the rule; however, I give a few examples 

ABCDEFCHIJKLMNO 
PQRSTUVWXYZ&c 

Fig. 244. 

of both plain and ornamental, so that the student 
can determine for himself the styles of letter he 
will employ. 

A simple block letter is shown in Fig. 244, 
with one letter G enlarged at the end. These 
letters, as will be seen, may be made in single 
or double line, as may be desired. Figures 

1234567890 

Fig. 245. 

appearing in the heading. Fig. 245, should be 
the same size as the letters, but as dimensions 
on the drawing they should not be more than }i 
in. deep, nor less than ts in. When dimensions 
are put upon a drawing, the distance to which 
they should extend should be carefully shown 
by dotted lines, with arrow-heads at the extremi- 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 243 

ties, keeping the fractions level, and with the 
small figures two-thirds the size of the large 
ones. The feet should be marked by a single 
accent thus ', and the inches by a double accent 
thus ", with a full stop on the line between the 
figure. If the dimensions consist of an even 
number of feet, then inches should be repre- 
sented by o". The omission has led to serious 
mistakes in practical work, which should always 
be guarded against, and, notwithstanding the 
examples of text-books and the practice of 
some examiners, this is an important 'point 
always observed by practical draftsmen. 

After inking in all the figures, pencil out the 
heading very carefully, making the letters a 
little thicker than those used in Fig. 244; G, R, 
S, C, and M will be found the most difficult. 
The distance apart of the letters should not be 
quite uniform, but should be such as will look 
uniform. For example, as I between M and N 
would require more than the usual space to look 
right-; on the other hand, a T between L and J 
would require to slightly overlap to give the 
right effect. The junction points A, M, N, V, 
and W should not be sharp but the same width 
as the thickness of the strokes. 

Leave Yz in. between the words of the heading. 



244 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

It is then much easier to read than if cramped 
closer together or spaced wider apart. 
Remember that the printing — being thicker — 
will take longer to dry, and be careful not to 
use the india rubber too soon. It will be 
observed that the guide lines for the square and 
center lines for the circle, as described above, 
have not been inked in, as they would spoil the 

ABODE FGH IJ 
K L M N PQRST 
UVWXYZ 

Fig. 246. 

effect of the drawing, but on machine drawings 
it is usual to put the center lines in red, using a 
little crimson lake for the purpose. 

Another block letter is shown at Fig. 246, 
which is easy to make and quite effective. This, 
and the three following examples, are taken 
from "The Draftsman," an excellent little 
journal for the young draftsman, as it is full of 
useful matter, and will help him along materially. 
The journal is published monthly, in Cleveland, 
Ohio, and only costs one dollar a year. 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 245 

The letters shown at Fig. 247 have some pre- 
tentions to ornamentation, but on the whole they 
are very simple and easy to make. 

jlBCDEFE|lIJKLiVINQ 
PQRSTUYWXYZ 
12 34567890 

Fig. 247. 

Fig. 248 exhibits a sort of Runic letter that is 
quite ornamental and would require considerable 
practice before it could be formed nicely. 

Fig. 248. 

The letters shown at Fig. 249 are good old 
style characters and are always in order for 
almost any kind of work= 



246 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

The two Styles of open letters shown in Fig. 
250 may sometimes be found useful, but as a rule 
I do not recommend this style of letter; it does 
not "show up" enough for the trouble; at the 
same time, it offers excellent practice for the 
draftsman. 

These examples are quite sufficient for my 
purpose, but the student will do well to try his 

ABCDEFGHI 
JKLMNOPQR 
STUVWXYZ 

Fig. 249 

hand on other styles, many of which he can find 
in public prints, headings, and other places. 

While I do not advise the young student to 
attempt the coloring of drawings, yet, if he 
advances himself sufficiently to be able to make 
a good drawing, there is no reason why he 
should not attempt to color some of his work, 
and to aid him in doing so I submit for his 
guidance the following hints and suggestions 
regarding this work. The first thing to do when 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



247 



coloring i s in- 
tended is to see 
that the paper 
has all the super- 
fluous sizing re- 
moved by being 
sponged lightly 
with clean water. 
The paper, and 
everything 
about it, must 
be kept perfect- 
ly clean. Line 
off the spaces, 
with very fine 
pencil marks, 
that are to be 
tinted. Never 
use the eraser 
on the part to 
be tinted, either 
before or after 
tinting. Try the 
tinting process 
on a piece of 
waste paper un- 
til the proper 




248 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE 17. 

This plate shows a basement window in a 
stone wall, the elevation showing the outside of 
the window, and the section exhibits the manner 
of constructing the frame and placing the sashes. 



foot 



AT?PHTTT?.r'T'TTT? \T. 'nRATXJTTOn CTTT -C T A TTrixITi 



248 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 




ARrHTTKCTTTRAT. DRAWTTSia RF,T.F TATTftHT 24!? 



/ 



PLftTE.17. 



ST;NLBA3tMENT WmO?W 



6/r 




248 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 249 

tint is obtained, before applying to the drawing. 
Dark tints are formed by applying a number of 
light ones over each other, but a second tint 
should not be applied until the first one is 
perfectly dry. Always finish tinting one portion 
of drawing before leaving it. Otherwise it will 
be cloudy. See that the paper is damp before 
you begin to tint. Ink in all lines after the 
tinting is completed and the drawing is perfectly 
dry. 

The colors used for representing wood, iron, 
and other materials, are as follows: For soft 
pine, a very pale tint of sienna; for hard pine, 
burnt sienna with a little carmine added; for oak, 
a mixture of burnt sienna and yellow ochre is 
used. Mahogany is represented by burnt sienna 
and a portion of dragon's blood. For walnut, 
dragon's blood and burnt umber are used. For 
bricks, burnt sienna and carmine make a good 
color. Gray stones are represented by a mixture 
of black and white, with a little Prussian blue 
and carmine added — pale ink alone is sometimes 
used for stone work. Brown freestone is rep- 
resented by burnt sienna, carmine, and ink 
Wrought iron is represented by a light tint ot 
Prussian blue, and cast iron by a gray tint com- 
posed of black, white, and a little indigo. Brass 



250 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

is tinted with gamboge. Gamboge, slightly 
mixed with vermilion, makes a good color for 
copper. Silver is represented by an almost 
invisible blue. 

Many draftsmen have a natural talent for 
using suitable colors, and putting them on in a 
suitable manner, but others must go through the 
drudgery of careful practice according to rule. 
A perfectly uniform tint such as desired on an 
engineer's drawing is not required on an 
architect's drawing, and still less on that for use 
by a builder; but unless the draftsman learns 
first to lay on a flat and uniform wash of any 
tint, he is not likely to be able to put on an 
appropriate rough tint. For water-color sketch- 
ing a flat tile with shallow recesses is suitable 
for mixing the colors, but this is quite unsuited 
for a draftsman's use. He should invariably use 
the nests of round saucers fitting one on the 
other, and of a size to hold as much color as 
would be required to completely finish the color- 
ing of any one material on one sheet. The 
saucers should be kept covered while in use, 
and washed out when done with. The lightest 
tints should, as a rule, be put on first, and the 
brush should always be of ample size. Color 
brushes should be kept scrupulously clean, 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 251 

never put in the mouth, always washed after 
using, the surplus moisture shaken out, and then 
put away in the box and not laid on a dusty 
shelf to dry. 

A little practice in the laying of colors one 
over another will be used for impressing on the 
memory the general effect of combination, and 
also a knowledge of the primary colors and 
their secondaries. Nearly all water-colors are 
transparent, and a medium tint of any one color, 
if laid over another after it is dry, will allow the 
first color to show through. A more intimate 
combination may be made by mixing the colors 
together in the same palette and putting them 
on with the brush in one operation. 

Wipe the brush lightly on the edge of the 
saucer to remove the surplus color, and hold it 
as described for a lead pencil when about to 
draw a vertical line; commence at the top left 
hand of the space to be colored; pass the brush 
downwards, then along the top, then down by 
short strokes from the top to the length of the 
first stroke, and so carry the color downwards 
for the whole width, finishing at the bottom 
right-hand corner. 

To produce good and uniform coloring, never 
damp the paper before commencing, refill the 



252 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

brush often, gently wiping it on the edge of the 
saucer each time. The margin of the color must 
not dry before the next stroke reaches it, and a 
part once colored must never be retouched, 
even though it looks uneven. Retouching is a 
fruitful source of failure; for color, looking 
uneven when wet, may dry even, but if touched 
again when partially dried it is certain to show 
uneven when dry. 

There is an advantage in having plenty of 
color in the brush, but when nearing the bottom 
boundary the amount must be reduced, so that 
there is not a pool left at the lower corner. By 
regulating the amount of color any slight excess 
may be picked up with the brush by simply 
raising it slowly, point last, from the corner. 
The brush should not be wiped in any way, but 
simply washed in clean water, when done with, 
or before use with another color. It will soon 
be found that with a given amount of color in 
the brush more or less of it may be left behind 
as the brush is allowed to trail or is used side- 
ways, and it is by unconscious adjustments of 
this kind that a good colorist produces uniform 
results. 

There are certain tints employed by architects 
to designate works of various kinds, and I give 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 253 

them herewith so that the student may have 
them within reach if he has occasion for their 
use. It must be understood, however, that 
nearly every drawing office of any note has 
rules of its own for marking and coloring 
drawings, so that the rules given herewith may 
differ materially from many others in vogue. 

Banks (Steep) — Shaded with graduated warm 
sepia, darkest at top of bank; vertical hill- 
shading in India ink or dark sepia. 

Brass — Gamboge with yellow ochre or burnt, 
sienna. 

Bricks (Blue) — Elevation, indigo and India 
ink; section, indigo. (Red) — Elevation, light red 
(pale); section, India red (dark). 

Brickwork (New) — Elevation, Roman ochre; 
section, crimson lake. (Old) — Elevation, India 
ink (pale); section, India ink (dark). 

Buildings (Brick or Stone) — Crimson lake. 
(Wood) — Sepia. 

Cast Iron — Payne's grey; neutral tint. 

Chain — Elevation, Prussian blue (dot and 
stroke); section, no color. 

Concrete — Sepia with black marks; or indigo, 
or Payne's grey with black marks and small 
light spots left. 

Copper — Gamboge with lake; elevation, 



254 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

crimson lake and burnt sienna; section, crimson 
lake and burnt sienna (dark). 

Earth — Burnt umber or warm sepia, left 
jagged at edges; or sepia, light and dark. 

Electric-bell Wires— Yellow, 

Fields and Vacant Lands — White. 

Fir and Deal (rough) — Elevation, burnt sienna 
or gamboge; section, burnt sienna (edged round 
and hatched). 

Footpaths (Flagged) — Yellow ochre. 

Glass — Green; Prussian blue; neutral tint. 

Glass Roofs — Cross-hatching of Prussian 
blue. 

Granite — Purple madder; pale India ink. 

Greenheart — Elevation, indigo and gamboge; 
section, indigo and gamboge (dark). 

Gun-metal — Elevation, Indian yellow; section, 
Indian yellow (dark). 

Lead — Indigo; indigo with India ink. 

Leather — Elevation, burnt umber (very pale); 
section, burnt umber (dark). 

Mahogany — Elevation, light red and burnt 
sienna; section, light red and burnt sienna (dark.) 

Meadows and Cultivated Grass — Prussian 
green; Hooker's green. 

Oak — Elevation, burnt umber (pale); section, 
burnt umber (dark). 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 255 

Pine and Spruce (v.rought) — Elevation, burnt 
sienna (pale); section burnt sienna (dark rings). 

Pipes (Cold-water) — Prussian blue. (Gas) — 
Indigo with lake. (Hot-water) — Crimson lake. 
(Rain-water) — Elevation, Prussian blue (outline); 
section, Prussian blue (outline). (Soil) — Eleva- 
tion, burnt sienna; section, burnt sienna (out- 
line). 

Plaster — Payne's grey. Plaster and Cement-- 
Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink 
(dark). 

Railways — Neutral tint between the rails of 
each track. 

Rope — Elevation, burnt sienna (dot and 
stroke); section, no color. 

Rosewood — Burnt sienna with lake. 

Sewers and Drains — Prussian blue. 

Skies (in perspectives) — Cobalt blue. 

Slate — Elevation, Payne's grey; section, 
Payne's grey (dark). 

Steel — Elevation, violet carmine (very pale); 
section, violet carmine (dark); or indigo with a 
little lake. 

Stone — Yellow ochre; gamboge with Indian 
red and burnt umber; sepia; Prussian blue. 

Representing stone in section by Prussian blue 
is to be avoided, though in common use. 



256 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



PLATE i8. 

This plate shows two elevations and sections 
of windows, one designed for wooden build- 
ings, and the other for brick buildings. The 
vertical sections of frames and sashes are shown 
in both cases, and the manner of constructing 
the sills is given. The segmental headed 
window shows finish around the frame suited for 
brick. Both frames show exterior finish, and 
that designed for wood shows the lines of 
siding on one side. These examples are drawn 
to a scale of H of an inch to the foot. 



number oi secnuns die ^iv^n. ^^ 






LLLVAl 



PlateJS. 



f. 



^^^ 




3ECTieiN'^ WIND2W5 ■''"^ W??0 ■«'<'' ^T^Nt BUILDINGS 

number of sections are given. By this method 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 257 

Prussian blue should be retained entirely for 
wrought-iron work. 

Stone Dressings — Elevation, French blue 
(very pale); section, French blue (dark). 

Streets (Paved) — Neutral tint. 

Timber (Existing) — Elevation, India ink 
(pale); section, India ink (etched). 

Tubes (Speaking) — Green. 

Water — Elevation, Prussian blue (washed); 
section, Prussian blue (lines). Water may have 
graduated blue edges. 

Windows Inside — Elevation, French blue 
(pale); section. Hooker's green, No. 2 (dark). 

Windows Outside — Elevation, Payne's grey 
(dark); section. Hooker's green, No. 2 (dark). 

Wrought-iron (Bright) — Elevation, Prussian 
blue (very pale); section, Prussian blue (dark). 
(Rough) — Payne's grey. 

York and Soft Stone — Elevation, sepia (very 
pale); section, sepia. 

Zinc — Elevation, French blue (very pale); 
section, French blue (dark). 

Often various materials are shown by the 
manner in which the sections of such materials 
are hatched or lined off as may be seen by the 
illustration shown at Fig. 251, where a large 
number of sections are given. By this method 



258 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 



the material is recognized by the method of 
hatching, and no color is required, the whole 
being done in black and white. 

It may be necessary sometimes for the drafts- 
man to shade portions of his work, and, though 
this book does not pretend to deal with the 




hig 251. 

higher class of drawing, it may not be out of 
place to say a few words on shading, and offer a 
few rough illustrations, showing how some 
objects may be shaded even by an inexperienced 
hand. The principles of shading are very 
simple, but do not seem to be generally under- 
stood, even by architects. All the exhibition 
drawings of an Architectural Association were 



ARCHITEC'rCT?.\-L DRAVyTNG SELF TAUGHT 



259 



spoilt one year by the roof shading being 
reversed, presumably in order to comply with 
some fancied natural requirement. The prin- 
ciples are as follows: (i) The more distant the 
object the less distinct the light and shade, 




and vice versa; (2) for the sake of uniformity 
the light is usually supposed to come from the 
left, and on a drawing is generally taken as 
coming down the long side of a 45° set square, 
when one edge is placed diagonally on the paper 
and at right angles to it; (3) on inclined surface 
in the light the farthest part is the darkest and 
in the shade the nearest part is the darkest; (4) 
cylindrical surfaces follow the same rules, but 
on the right hand or lower sides the effect 
appears as though some reflected light were 
shown towards the edge. The accompanying 



260 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

illustrations, Fig. 252, show the application of 
these rules. 

When ink lines to any considerable extent 
have to be erased, a small piece of damped soft 
sponge may be rubbed over them till they 
disappear. As, however, this process is apt to 
discolor the paper, the sponge must be passed 
through clean water, and applied again to take 
up the straggling ink. For small erasures of ink 
lines, a sharp erasing knife should be used; this 
is an instrument with a short triangular blade 
fastened to a wooden or ivory handle. A sharp 
rounded pen-blade applied lightly and rapidly 
does well, and the surface may be smoothed 
down by the thumb nail or a paper-knife handle. 
In ordinary working drawings a line may readily 
be taken out by damping it with a hair pencil 
and quickly applying the india rubber; and, to 
smooth the surface so roughened, a light applica- 
tion of the knife is expedient. In drawings 
intended to be highly finished, particular pains 
should be taken to avoid the necessity for 
corrections, as everything of this kind detracts 
from the appearance. 

A little Prussian blue, mixed with the ink 
makes it flow freer and adds to the color. In 
inking in on ordinary tracing cloth, the student 



ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 261 

will find the ink will "creep" in such a manner 
that the lines will be broken. This can be pre- 
vented if a drop of ox-gall be mixed with the 
ink, but where ox-gall is not available, Prussian 
blue may be substituted, and this will, to some 
extent, work freer over the cloth. 

As this book is not intended for making 
finished draftsmen, I have avoided in all cases — 
except in the orders of Architecture — offer- 
ing any very elaborate or finished examples, 
as the student can find a number of works in the 
market that will lead him to a higher plane if he 
so determines, after he has well mastered what 
I have served up to him. Neither have I 
thought it desirable to describe the method of 
making blue prints, as this method, or m_ethods, 
has been rendered over and over again in the 
technical journals; for years past. If, however, 
the student desires to iearn how to make blue 
prints, I would advise him to purchase a copy 
of "Blue Print Making" by P. Reissmann, which 
can be had from the publishers of this book, 
price 25 cents. This is an excellent little work, 
and goes into the subject thoroughly. 

It must be understood that this work is pre- 
pared purposely for the workman who has no 
time to attend night school, or money to spare 



262 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 

to take a course in any one of the excellent 
correspondence schools; therefore, the illustra- 
tions have been left in a plain state, so that the 
student would not be frightened on the threshold 
of his work by fancy and elaborate drawings. I 
state this fact, partly to make it easy for the 
student, and partly to disarm critics, who can, if 
they are so disposed, find many defects in the 
illustrations. 



FINIS 



(9/" What our Plans Consist 



ALL OF OUR PLANS are accurately 
drawn one-quarter inch scale to the 
foot. 

We use only the best quality heavy 
Gallia Blue Print Paper No. loooX, taking every 
precaution to have all the blue prints of even 
color and every line and figure perfect and 
distinct. 

We furnish for a complete set of plans : 



FRONT ELEVATION 

REAR ELEVATION 

LEFT ELEVATION 

RIGHT ELEVATION 

ALL FLOOR PLANS 

CELLAR AND FOUNDATION PLANS 

ALL NECESSARY INTERIOR DETAILS 



Specifications consist of several pages of 
typewritten matter, giving full instructions for 
carrying out the work. 

We guarantee all plans and specifications 
to be full, complete and accurate in every par- 
ticular. Every plan being designed and drawn 
by a licensed architect. 

Our equipment is so complete that we can 
mail to you the same day the order is received, 
a complete set of plans and specifications of 
any house illustrated herein. 

Our large sales of these plans demonstrates 
to us the wisdom of making these very low 
prices. 



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Builders' Reliable Estimator 

Contractors' Guide 



By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Two volumes in one, nearly 550 pages. Fully illus- 
trated with diagrams. Bound in silk cloth. Special, 
Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & 
Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. 

HODGSON'S MODERN ESTIMATOR AND CON- 
TRACTORS' GUIDE, for pricing all builders' work. 
By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. 

THE BUILDERS' AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE 
to correct measurement for estimating. By Fred 
T. Hodgson and W. M. Brown, C. E. Retail price 
$1.50. 

FIFTY HOUSE PLANS, showing perspective views 
and floor plans. Retail price $1.00. 

A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR PRICING ALL 
BUILDERS' WORK. It contains many tables, rules 
and useful memoranda. GUIDE TO CORRECT 
MEASUREMENTS is found in the second part of 
this work. This shows how all kinds of odd, crooked 
and difficult measurements may be taken, to secure 
correct results. Profusely illustrated. 

No. 3R9120 BUILDERS' RELIABLE ESTIMATOR 
AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.45. 
If by mail, postage extra per set, 23 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 

Chicago, 111. 



.1 



CYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

Bricklaying, Stone Masonry, Concretes, 
Slnccos and Plasters 

CoYering EyerytMng Connected with the Allied Trades 

By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Three volumes in one. 840 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY BRICKLAYER'S 
AND MASON'S ASSISTANT. By Fred T. Hodg- 
son. Retail price $1.50. 

CONCRETES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, PLASTERS 
AND STUCCOS. How to Make and How to Use 
Them. By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. 

DIAGRAMS AND PLATES. Retail price $1.50. 
Bricklaying — Stone Masonry — Concretes and Ce- 
ments — Mortars, Plastering and Stucco Work. 
There are 1,000 Illustrations and Diagrams. 

No. 3R9130 CYCLOPEDIA OF BRICKLAYING, 
STONE MASONRY, CONCRETES, STUCCOS 
AND PLASTERS. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.62. 
If by mail, postage extra, 21 cents. \ 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COZ- 
Chicago. 



Builders' Reliable Estimator 

Contractors' Guide 



By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Two volumes in one, nearly 550 pages. Fully illus- 
trated with diagrams. Bound in silk cloth. Special, 
Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & 
Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. 

HODGSON'S MODERN ESTIMATOR AND CON- 
TRACTORS' GUIDE, for pricing all builders' work. 
By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. 

THE BUILDERS' AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE 
to correct measurement for estimating. By Fred 
T. Hodgson and W. M. Brown, C. E. Retail price 
$1.50. 

FIFTY HOUSE PLANS, showing perspective views 
and floor plans. Retail price $1.00. 

A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR PRICING ALL 
BUILDERS' WORK. It contains many tables, rules 
and useful memoranda. GUIDE TO CORRECT 
MEASUREMENTS is found in the second part of 
this work. This shows how all kinds of odd, crooked 
and difficult measurements may be taken, to secure 
correct results. Profusely illustrated. 

No. 3R9120 BUILDERS' RELIABLE ESTIMATOR 
AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.45. 
If by mail, postage extra per set, 23 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



CYCLOPEDIA 

OF 



Bricklaying, Stone Masonry, Concretes, 
Slnccos and Plasters 

Covering Everything Connected with the Allied Trades 

By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Three volumes in one. 840 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY BRICKLAYER'S 
AND MASON'S ASSISTANT. By Fred T. Hods:- 
son. Retail price $1.50. 

CONCRETES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, PLASTERS 
AND STUCCOS. How to Make and How to Use 
Them. By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. 

DIAGRAMS AND PLATES. Retail price $1.50. 
Bricklaying — Stone Masonry — Concretes and Ce- 
ments — Mortars, Plastering and Stucco Work. 
There are 1,000 Illustrations and Diagrams. 

No. 3R9130 CYCLOPEDIA OF BRICKLAYING, 
STONE MASONRY, CONCRETES, STUCCOS 
AND PLASTERS. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.62. 
If by mail, postage extra, 21 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 

Chicago, 111. 



Standard Ameri can Plumbing 

Hot Air and Hot ^iVater 

Heating 

Steam and Gas Fitting 

By CLOW and DONALDSON. 



Three volumes in one. Over 600 pages. Fully illus- 
trated. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by 
Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly for Sears, 
Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

PRACTICAL UP-TO-DATE PLUMBING. By Geo. 
B. Clovi^. Retail price $1.50. 

HOT WATER HEATING, STEAM AND GAS FIT- 
TING. By William Donaldson. Retail price $1.50. 

WORKING DRAWINGS. Retail price $1.50. Among 
the subjects this valuable book treats of: 

SANITARY PLUMBING. 

MODERN HOT WATER, HOT AIR AND 
STEAM HEATING. 

STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 

WORKING DRAWINGS. 

No. 3R9180 STANDARD AMERICAN PLUMBING, 
HOT AIR AND HOT WATER HEATING, 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.62. 
If by mail, postage extra, 21 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



Modern Painting, liardwooil 
Finisliing and Sign Writing 

Covering Every Branch of this Profession. 



By ARMSTRONG, HODGSON AND DELAMOTTE. 



Three volumes in one. Nearly 700 pages. Fully illus- 
trated. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Fred- 
erick J. Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roe- 
buck & Company. Contains: 

THE PAINTER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA. By Geo. D. 

Armstrong. Retail price $1.50. 

THE UP-TO-DATE HARDWOOD FINISHER, in- 
cluding manipulation of wood of all kinds. By Fred 
T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.00. 

SIGN WRITING. By F. Delamotte. Retail price 
$1.50. 

Including 

PAINTS AND PAINTING, 

WOOD FINISHING, 

MODERN UP-TO-DATE ARTISTIC 
SIGN PAINTING, 

AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 
No. 3R9150 MODERN PAINTING, HARDWOOD 

FINISHING AND SIGN WRITING. - 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.89. 
If by mail, postage extra, 23 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



STANDARD AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN 



A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA 
OF ELECTRICITY 

By HORSTMANN and TOUSLEY 



Four volumes in one. Bound in full Persian morocco, 
Pocketbook style, with flap. Stamped in gold. Full 
gold edges. 600 Pages. Fully illustrated. Special, 
Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake 
& Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Com- 
pany. The following four important works by Lead- 
ing Electrical Authorities, SWINGLE, HORST- 
MANN and TOUSLEY are contained in this one 
volume. 

MODERN ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION. Re- 
tail value $1.50. 

MODERN WIRING DIAGRAMS AND DESCRIP- 
TIONS. Retail value $1.50. 

ELECTRICAL WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 
TABLES. Retail value $1.50. 

DYNAMO TENDING FOR ENGINEERS. Retail 
value $1.50. 

Making the full retail value of the STANDARD 
AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN $6.00 

THIS COMPLETE AND AUTHORITATIVE WORK IN- 
CLUDES ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION, WIRING, DIA- 
GRAMS AND DESCRIPTIONS, ELECTRICAL WIRING 
CONSTRUCTION TABLES, DYNAMO TENDING FOR EN- 
GINEERS, and is PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 

No. 3R923a STANDARD AMERICAN ELECTRI- 
CIAN. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.68. 
If by mail, postage extra, 20 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



STANDARD AMERICAN 

GAS AND OIL ENGINE, AMTOMOBILE AND FARM 

ENGINE GUIDE 



A Complete Encyclopedia of the Construction, 
Operation and Management of Gas Engines, Gasoline 
Engines, Automobiles, Farm Engines and Traction En- 
gines, together with Complete Questions and Answers. 
By Stevenson & Brookes. Three volumes in one. Over 
600 pages. Fully illustrated. Bound in Full Persian 
Morocco, with flap, pocketbook style. Special, Exclu- 
sive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Com- 
pany expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Con- 
tains: 

PRACTICAL GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND 
BOOK, including stationary, marine and portable gas 
and gasoline engines. By L. Elliott Brookes. Retail 
price, $1.50. 

THE AUTOMOBILE HAND BOOK. By L. Elliott 
Brookes. Retail price $1.50. 

FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM, 
AND THE TRACTION ENGINE. By James H. 
Stevenson. Retail price $1.00. 

GAS AND OIL ENGINES. AUTOMOBILES. 

FARM ENGINES, TRACTION ENGINES AND 
HOW TO RUN THEM. 

HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

THIS WORK IS PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9220 Standard American Gas and Oil Engine, 
Automobile and Farm Engine Guide. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.19. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



Easy steps in Archilechire 



AND 



Archilecturai Drawing 

For students. Carpenters and Builders 

By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Two volumes in one. 600 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

BUILDERS' ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF- 
TAUGHT. By Fred T. Hodgson, Architect. Re- 
tail price $2.00. 

EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE. By Fred T. 
Hodgson, Architect. Retail price $2.00. 

FIFTY HOUSE PLANS. Retail price $1.00. 

MAKE A COMPETENT, SELF-SUPPORTING 
ARCHITECT OF YOURSELF. This work con- 
tains everything that is necessary for a complete, 
self-teaching course in architecture. 

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF-TAUGHT. 

This part of the work is especially designed for 
carpenters and builders and other wood workers who 
desire to learn drawing at home. 

MANY HUNDREDS OF FINE LINE ENGRAV- 
INGS made especially for this work are drawn to 
scale, with twenty-five large, double folding plates. 

No. 3R9140 EASY STEPS IN ARCHITECTURE 
AND ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.45. 
If by mail, postage extra, 25 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



Modern Machine Shop Practice 

— INCLUDING ' 

PATTERN MAKING and 
FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

By BROOKES and HAND. 



Two volumes in one. 800 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed 
by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly for 
Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

TWENTIETH CENTURY MACHINE SHOP 
PRACTICE. By L. Elliott Brookes. Retail price 
$2.00. 

PATTERN MAKING AND FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 
By L. H. Hand. Retail price $1.50. This book is 
intended for the practical instruction of machinists, 
engineers, etc. 

MODERN MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE. It clearly 
but concisely describes the properties of steam, the 
indicator, horse power, electricity, measuring de- 
vices, machinists' tools. 

PATTERN MAKING AND FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

Nearly every problem explained is taken from an 
actual pattern. 

HUNDREDS OF ILLUSTRATIONS. These illustra- 
tions show views of the latest machines, the most 
up-to-date and improved belt and motor-driven ma- 
chine tools, with full information as to their use and 
operation. 

No. 3R9250 MODERN MACHINE SHOP PRAC- 
TICE, including PATTERN MAKING AND 
FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.75. 
If by mail, postage extra, 24 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



American machsmiihing, Tooismiihs' 



AND: 



steel workers' Manual 

By HOLMSTROM and HOLFORD. 



Two volumes in one. 600 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

MODERN BLACKSMITHING, RATIONAL 
HORSESHOEING AND WAGON MAKING. By 
J. G. Holmstrom. Retail price $1.00. 

CORRECT HORSE, MULE AND OX SHOEING. 
By J. G. Holmstrom, Retail price $1.00. 

TWENTIETH CENTURY TOOLSMITHS' AND 
STEEL WORKERS' MANUAL. By Holford. 
Retail price $1.50. 

BLACKSMITHING. It comprises particulars and de- 
tails regarding the anvil, tool table, sledge, tongs, 
hammers, how to use them, correct position at anvil, 
welding, tube expanding, the horse, anatomy of the 
foot, horseshoes, horseshoeing, hardening a plow- 
share, babbitting, etc. 

TOOLSMITHING AND STEEL WORKING. Covers 
composition of cast tool steel, heating, forging, ham- 
mering, hardening, etc. Tempering, welding, anneal- 
ing, cause of tools cracking when hardening. 

LINE ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS. The book 
is very fully illustrated and contains numerous work- 
ing rules and recipes. Experienced blacksmiths, steel 
and tool workers, as well as beginners, will get 
pleasure and helpful suggestions from this book. 

No. 3R9240 AMERICAN BLACKSMITHING TOOL- 
SMITH AND STEELWORKERS' MANUAL. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE, $1.62. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



STANDARD AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 
OF STEAM ENGINEERING 

Including Electricity for Engineers, Boilers, Steam Turbines, Refrigeration, 

Lubrication, Pumps, Valve Settinp, Marine Engine, Meclianical 

and Maciiine Design and Questions and Answers 

for Stationary and Marine Engineers. 



By CALVIN F. SWINGLE and OTHERS. 

Four volumes in one. Bound in full Persian Morocco. 
Pocketbook style with flap. Stamped in gold. Full 
gold edges. 1,200 pages. Fully illustrated. Special, 
Exclusive Edition, Printed by Frederick J. Drake & 
Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. 
This work covers everything contained in the follow- 
ing volumes: 

SWINGLE'S TWENTIETH CENTURY HAND 
BOOK FOR STEAM ENGINEERS AND ELEC- 
TRICIANS. By Calvin F. Swingle. Retail price $3.00. 

COMPLETE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND 
ANSWERS FOR MARINE AND STATIONARY 
ENGINEERS. By Calvin F. Swingle. Retail price $1.50. 

PRACTICAL MECHANICAL DRAWING AND 
MACHINE DESIGN SELF-TAUGHT. By Charles 
Westinghouse. Retail price $2.00. 

DYNAMO TENDING FOR ENGINEERS AND 
ELECTRICITY FOR STEAM ENGINEERS. By 
Henry C. Horstmann and Victor H. Tousley. Retail 
price $1.50. 

Making the full retail value of the STANDARD 
AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA OF STEAM ENGI- 
NEERING, $8.00. 

INCLUDING 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM ENGINES, BOILERS 
AND DYNAMOS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING, ME- 
CHANICAL STOKERS, THE STEAM TURBINE, REFRIG- 
ERATION, PUMPS, AIR COMPRESSORS, SETTING STEAM 
VALVES, LUBRICATION, ELECTRICITY FOR ENGIN- 
EERS, COMPLETE ENGINEERS' CATECHISM, MECHAN- 
ICAL AND MACHINE DRAWING, and PROFUSELY IL- 
LUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9200 STANDARD AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 
OF STEAM ENGINEERING. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.78. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. 



standard American Locomotive 
==^ Engineering ==== 

COMPLETE IN ALL ITS BRANCHES 

Including Railroad Signaling, Block Systems, Breakdowns, 

Valve Setting, Air Brakes, with Complete 

Questions and Answers. 

By C. F. SWINGLE and W. G. WALLACE. 

Over four volumes in one. Bound in full Persian 
Morocco, with flap, pocketbook style, stamped in 
gold. Full gold edges. 1,150 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. 
Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & 
Company. It contains: 

MODERN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING, Twen- 
tieth Century Edition, with Questions and Answers. 
By C. F, Swingle. Retail price $3.00. 

RAILWAY SIGNALING AND STATION WORK. 
By W. G. Wallace. Retail price $2.00. 

STANDARD EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND 
ANSWERS, for Firemen. By W. G. Wallace. Re- 
tail price $1.50. 

MODERN AIR BRAKE PRACTICE, Its Use and 
Abuse, including the new E. T. Equipment. By Frank 
H. Dukesmith. Retail price $1.50. And all the matter 
contained in the following two books, each one of 
which retails for $1.50. 

LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS. THE W A L- 
SCHAERT VALVE GEAR. Making full retail value 
of the Standard American Locomotive Engineering, $11.00. 

A VERITABLE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LOCOMO- 
TIVE ENGINEERING, including BOILERS, 
VALVES, VALVE GEAR AND VALVE SET- 
TING, AIR BRAKE PRACTICE, LOCOMOTIVE 
BREAKDOWNS, COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES, 
RAILWAY SIGNALING, BLOCK SYSTEMS, 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, and FULLY 
ILLUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9210. STANDARD AMERICAN LOCOMO- 
TIVE ENGINEERING. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.85. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



021 227 967 5 



